in.) and the difference divided by 0.2 to get the percentage contraction.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 9.--Olsen testing machine.]

Quite often it is desired to discover the elastic limit of the steel, in fact this is of more use to the designer than the ultimate strength. The elastic limit is usually very close to the load where the metal takes on a permanent set. That is to say, if a delicate caliper ("extensometer," so called) be fixed to the side of the test specimen, it would show the piece to be somewhat longer under load than when free. Furthermore, if the load had not yet reached the yield point, and were released at any time, the piece would return to its original length. However, if the load had been excessive, and then relieved, the extensometer would no longer read exactly 2.0 in., but something more.

Soft steels "give" very quickly at the yield point. In fact, if the testing machine is running slowly, it takes some time for the lower head to catch up with the stretching steel. Consequently at the yield point, the top head is suddenly but only temporarily relieved of load, and the scale beam drops. In commercial practice, the yield point is therefore determined by the "drop of the beam."

For more precise work the calipers are read at intervals of 500 or 1,000 lb. load, and a curve plotted from these results, a curve which runs straight up to the elastic limit, but there bends off.

A tensile test therefore gives four properties of great usefulness: The yield point, the ultimate strength, the elongation and the contraction. Compression tests are seldom made, since the action of metal in compression and in tension is closely allied, and the designer is usually satisfied with the latter.

IMPACT TESTS

Impact tests are of considerable importance as an indication of how a metal will perform under shock. Some engineers think that the tensile test, which is one made under slow loading, should therefore be supplemented by another showing what will happen if the load is applied almost instantaneously. This test, however, has not been standardized, and depends to a considerable extent upon the type of machine, but more especially the size of the specimen and the way it is "nicked." The machine is generally a swinging heavy pendulum. It falls a certain height, strikes the sample at the lowest point, and swings on past. The difference between the downward and upward swing is a measure of the energy it took to break the test piece.

FATIGUE TESTS

It has been known for fifty years that a beam or rod would fail at a relatively low stress if only repeated often enough. It has been found, however, that each material possesses a limiting stress, or endurance limit, within which it is safe, no matter how often the loading occurs. That limiting stress for all steels so far investigated causes fracture below 10 million reversals. In other words, a steel which will not break before 10,000,000 reversals can confidently be expected to endure 100,000,000, and doubtless into the billions.

About the only way to test one piece such a large number of times is to fashion it into a beam, load it, and then turn the beam in its supports. Thus the stress in the outer fibers of the bar varies from a maximum stretch through zero to a maximum compression, and back again. A simple machine of this sort is shown in Fig. 10, where _B_ and _E_ are bearings, _A_ the test piece, turned slightly down in the center, _C_ and _D_ ball bearings supporting a load _W_. _K_ is a pulley for driving the machine and _N_ is a counter.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 10.--Sketch of rotating beam machine for measuring endurance of metal.]

HARDNESS TESTING

The word "hardness" is used to express various properties of metals, and is measured in as many different ways.

"Scratch hardness" is used by the geologist, who has constructed "Moh's scale" as follows:

Talc has a hardness of 1 Rock Salt has a hardness of 2 Calcite has a hardness of 3 Fluorite has a hardness of 4 Apat.i.te has a hardness of 5 Feldspar has a hardness of 6 Quartz has a hardness of 7 Topaz has a hardness of 8 Corundum has a hardness of 9 Diamond has a hardness of 10

A mineral will scratch all those above it in the series, and will be scratched by those below. A weighted diamond cone drawn slowly over a surface will leave a path the width of which (measured by a microscope) varies inversely as the scratch hardness.

"Cutting hardness" is measured by a standardized drilling machine, and has a limited application in machine-shop practice.

"Rebounding hardness" is commonly measured by the Sh.o.r.e scleroscope, ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 11. A small steel hammer, 1/4 in. in diameter, 3/4 in. in length, and weighing about 1/12 oz. is dropped a distance of 10 in. upon the test piece. The height of rebound in arbitrary units represents the hardness numeral.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 11.--Sh.o.r.e scleroscope.]

Should the hammer have a hard flat surface and drop on steel so hard that no impression were made, it would rebound about 90 per cent of the fall. The point, however, consists of a slightly spherical, blunt diamond nose 0.02 in. in diameter, which will indent the steel to a certain extent. The work required to make the indentation is taken from the energy of the falling body; the rebound will absorb the balance, and the hammer will now rise from the same steel a distance equal to about 75 per cent of the fall. A permanent impression is left upon the test piece because the impact will develop a force of several hundred thousand pounds per square inch under the tiny diamond-pointed hammer head, stressing the test piece at this point of contact much beyond its ultimate strength.

The rebound is thus dependent upon the indentation hardness, for the reason that the less the indentation, the more energy will reappear in the rebound; also, the less the indentation, the harder the material. Consequently, the harder the material, the more the rebound.

"Indentation hardness" is a measure of a material's resistance to penetration and deformation. The standard testing machine is the Brinell, Fig. 12. A hardened steel ball, 10 mm. in diameter, is forced into the test piece with a pressure of 3,000 kg. (3-1/3 tons). The resulting indentation is then measured.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 12.--Hydraulic testing machine. (Brinell principle.)]

While under load, the steel ball in a Brinell machine naturally flattens somewhat. The indentation left behind in the test piece is a duplicate of the surface which made it, and is usually regarded as being the segment of a sphere of somewhat larger radius than the ball. The radius of curvature of this spherical indentation will vary slightly with the load and the depth of indentation.

The Brinell hardness numeral is the quotient found by dividing the test pressure in kilograms by the spherical area of the indentation.

The denominator, as before, will vary according to the size of the sphere, the hardness of the sphere and the load. These items have been standardized, and the following table has been constructed so that if the diameter of the identation produced by a load of 3,000 kg. be measured the hardness numeral is found directly.

TABLE FOR BRINELL BALL TEST ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Diameter of Ball | Hardness Number | Diameter of Ball | Hardness Number Impression, mm. | for a Load of | Impression, mm. | for a Load of | 3,000 kg. | | 3,000 kg.

-----------------|-----------------|------------------|----------------- 2.0 | 946 | 4.5 | 179 2.1 | 857 | 4.6 | 170 2.2 | 782 | 4 7 | 163 2.3 | 713 | 4.8 | 156 2.4 | 652 | 4.9 | 149 2.5 | 600 | 5.0 | 143 | | | 2.6 | 555 | 5.1 | 137 2.7 | 512 | 5.2 | 131 2.8 | 477 | 5.3 | 126 2.9 | 444 | 5.4 | 121 3.0 | 418 | 5.5 | 116 | | | 3.1 | 387 | 5.6 | 112 3.2 | 364 | 5.7 | 107 3.3 | 340 | 5.8 | 103 3.4 | 321 | 5.9 | 99 3.5 | 302 | 6.0 | 95 | | | 3.6 | 286 | 6.1 | 92 3.7 | 269 | 6.2 | 89 3.8 | 255 | 6.3 | 86 3.9 | 241 | 6.4 | 83 4.0 | 228 | 6.5 | 80 | | | 4.1 | 217 | 6.6 | 77 4.2 | 207 | 6.7 | 74 4.3 | 196 | 6.8 | 71.5 4.4 | 187 | 6.9 | 69 ------------------------------------------------------------------------

CHAPTER III

ALLOYS AND THEIR EFFECT UPON STEEL

In view of the fact that alloy steels are coming into a great deal of prominence, it would be well for the users of these steels to fully appreciate the effects of the alloys upon the various grades of steel. We have endeavored to summarize the effect of these alloys so that the users can appreciate their effect, without having to study a metallurgical treatise and then, perhaps, not get the crux of the matter.

NICKEL

Nickel may be considered as the toughest among the non-rare alloys now used in steel manufacture. Originally nickel was added to give increased strength and toughness over that obtained with the ordinary rolled structural steel and little attempt was made to utilize its great possibilities so far as heat treatment was concerned.

The difficulties experienced have been a tendency towards laminated structure during manufacture and great liability to seam, both arising from improper melting practice. When extra care is exercised in the manufacture, particularly in the melting and rolling, many of these difficulties can be overcome.

The electric steel furnace, of modern construction, is a very important step forward in the melting of nickel steel; neither the crucible process nor basic or acid open-hearth furnaces give such good results.

Great care must be exercised in reheating the billet for rolling so that the steel is correctly soaked. The rolling must not be forced; too big reduction per pa.s.s should not be indulged in, as this sets up a tendency towards seams.

Nickel steel has remarkably good mechanical qualities when suitably heat-treated, and it is preeminently adapted for case-hardening. It is not difficult to machine low-nickel steel, consequently it is in great favor where easy machining properties are of importance.

Nickel influences the strength and ductility of steel by being dissolved directly in the iron or ferrite; in this respect differing from chromium, tungsten and vanadium. The addition of each 1 per cent nickel up to 5 per cent will cause an approximate increase of from 4,000 to 6,000 lb. per square inch in the tensile strength and elastic limit over the corresponding steel and without any decrease in ductility. The static strength of nickel steel is affected to some degree by the percentage of carbon; for instance, steel with 0.25 per cent carbon and 3.5 per cent nickel has a tensile strength, in its normal state, equal to a straight carbon steel of 0.5 per cent with a proportionately greater elastic limit and retaining all the advantages of the ductility of the lower carbon.

To bring out the full qualities of nickel it must be heat-treated, otherwise there is no object in using nickel as an alloy with carbon steel as the additional cost is not justified by increased strength.

Nickel has a peculiar effect upon the critical ranges of steel, the critical range being lowered by the percentage of nickel; in this respect it is similar to manganese.

Nickel can be alloyed with steel in various percentages, each percentage having a very definite effect on the microstructure. For instance, a steel with 0.2 per cent carbon and 2 per cent nickel has a pearlitic structure but the grain is much finer than if the straight carbon were used. With the same carbon content and say 5 per cent nickel, the structure would still be pearlitic, but much finer and denser, therefore capable of withstanding shock, and having greater dynamic strength. With about 0.2 per cent carbon and 8 per cent nickel, the steel is nearing the stage between pearlite and martensite, and the structure is extremely fine, the ferrite and pearlite having a very p.r.o.nounced tendency to mimic a purely martensite structure.

Steel with 0.2 per cent carbon and 15 per cent nickel is entirely martensite. Higher percentages of nickel change the martensitic structure to austenite, the steel then being non-magnetic. The higher percentages, that is 30 to 35 per cent nickel, are used for valve seats, valve heads, and valve stems, as the alloy is a poor conductor of heat and is particularly free from any tendency towards corrosion or pitting from the action of waste gases of the internal-combustion engine.

Nickel steels having 3-1/2 per cent nickel and 0.15 to 0.20 per cent carbon are excellent for case-hardening purposes, giving hard surfaces and tough interiors.

To obtain the full effect of nickel as an alloy, it is essential that the correct percentage of carbon be used. High nickel and low carbon will not be more efficient than lower nickel and higher carbon, but the cost will be much greater. Generally speaking, heat-treated nickel alloy steels are about two to three times stronger than the same steel annealed. This point is very important as many instances have been found where nickel steel is incorrectly used, being employed when in the annealed or normal state.

CHROMIUM

Chromium when alloyed with steel, has the characteristic function of opposing the disintegration and reconstruction of cement.i.te.

This is demonstrated by the changes in the critical ranges of this alloy steel taking place slowly; in other words, it has a tendency to raise the _Ac_ range (decalescent points) and lower the _Ar_ range (recalescent points). Chromium steels are therefore capable of great hardness, due to the rapid cooling being able to r.e.t.a.r.d the decomposition of the austenite.

The great hardness of chromium steels is also due to the formation of double carbides of chromium and iron. This condition is not removed when the steel is slightly tempered or drawn. This additional hardness is also obtained without causing undue brittleness such as would be obtained by any increase of carbon. The degree of hardness of the lower-chrome steels is dependent upon the carbon content, as chromium alone will not harden iron.

The toughness so noticeable in this steel is the result of the fineness of structure; in this instance, the action is similar to that of nickel, and the tensile strength and elastic limit is therefore increased without any loss of ductility. We then have the desirable condition of tough hardness, making chrome steels extremely valuable for all purposes requiring great resistance to wear, and in higher-chrome contents resistance to corrosion.

All chromium-alloy steels offer great resistance to corrosion and erosion. In view of this, it is surprising that chromium steels are not more largely used for structural steel work and for all purposes where the steel has to withstand the corroding action of air and liquids. Bridges, ships, steel building, etc., would offer greater resistance to deterioration through rust if the chromium-alloy steels were employed.

Prolonged heating and high temperatures have a very bad effect upon chromium steels. In this respect they differ from nickel steels, which are not so affected by prolonged heating, but chromium steels will stand higher temperatures than nickel steels when the period is short.

Chromium steels, due to their admirable property of increased hardness, without the loss of ductility, make very excellent chisels and impact tools of all types, although for die blocks they do not give such good results as can be obtained from other alloy combinations.