GENERAL PURPOSE TEMPER.--No. 4-1/2: Taps, small punches, s.c.r.e.w.i.n.g dies, sawwebs, needles, etc., and for all general purposes. Weldable.

AXE TEMPER.--No. 5: Axes, chisels, small taps, miners' drills and jumpers to harden and temper, plane irons. Weldable with care.

CUTLERY TEMPER.--No. 5-1/2: Large milling cutters, reamers, pocket cutlery, wood tools, short saws, granite drills, paper and tobacco knives. Weldable with very great care.

TOOL TEMPER.--No. 6: Turning, planing, slotting, and shaping tools, twist drills, mill picks, scythes, circular cutters, engravers'

tools, surgical cutlery, circular saws for cutting metals, bevel and other sections for turret lathes. Not weldable.

HARD TOOL TEMPER.--No. 6-1/2: Small twist drills, razors, small and intricate engravers' tools, surgical instruments, knives. Not weldable.

RAZOR TEMPER.--No. 7: Razors, barrel boring bits, special lathe tools for turning chilled rolls. Not weldable.

STEEL FOR CHISELS AND PUNCHES

The highest grades of carbon or tempering steels are to be recommended for tools which have to withstand shocks, such as for cold chisels or punches. These steels are, however, particularly useful where it is necessary to cut tempered or heat-treated steel which is more than ordinarily hard, for cutting chilled iron, etc. They are useful for boring, for rifle-barrel drilling, for fine finishing cuts, for drawing dies for bra.s.s and copper, for blanking dies for hard materials, for formed cutters on automatic screw machines and for roll-turning tools.

Steel of this kind, being very dense in structure, should be given more time in heating for forging and for hardening, than carbon steels of a lower grade. For forging it should be heated slowly and uniformly to a bright red and only light blows used as the heat dies out. Do not hammer at all at a black heat. Reheat slowly to a dark red for hardening and quench in warm water. Grind on a wet grindstone.

Where tools have to withstand shocks and vibration, as in pneumatic hammer work, in severe punching duty, hot or cold upsetting or similar work, tool steels containing vanadium or chrome-vanadium give excellent results. These are made particularly for work of this kind.

CHISELS-SHAPES AND HEAT TREATMENT[1]

[Footnote 1: Abstract of paper by HENRY FOWLER, chief mechanical engineer of the Midland Ry., England, before the Inst.i.tution of Mechanical Engineers.]

In the chief mechanical engineer's department of the Midland Ry., after considerable experimenting, it was decided to order chisel steel to the following specifications: carbon, 0.75 to 0.85 per cent, the other const.i.tuents being normal. This gives a complete a.n.a.lysis as follows: carbon, 0.75 to 0.85; manganese, 0.30; silicon, 0.10; sulphur, 0.025; phosphorus, 0.025.

The a.n.a.lysis of a chisel which had given excellent service was as follows: carbon, 0.75; manganese, 0.38; silicon, 0.16; sulphur, 0.028; phosphorus, 0.026. The heat treatment is unknown.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 83.--Forms of chisels standardized for the locomotive shops of the Midland Ry., England.]

At the same time that chisel steel was standardized, the form of the chisels themselves was revised, and a standard chart of these as used in the locomotive shops was drawn up. Figure 83 shows the most important forms, which are made to stock orders in the smithy and forwarded to the heat-treatment room where the hardening and tempering is carried out on batches of fifty. A standard system of treatment is employed, which to a very large extent does away with the personal element. Since the chemical composition is more or less constant, the chief variant is the section which causes the temperatures to be varied slightly. The chisels are carefully heated in a gas-fired furnace to a temperature of from 730 to 740C.

(1,340 to 1,364F.) according to section. In practice, the first chisel, is heated to 730C.; and the second to 735C. (1,355F.); and a 1 in. half round chisel to 740C., because of their varying increasing thickness of section at the points. Upon attaining this steady temperature, the chisels are quenched to a depth of 3/8 to 1/2 in. from the point in water, and then the whole chisel is immersed and cooled off in a tank containing linseed oil.

The oil-tank is cooled by being immersed in a cold-water tank through which water is constantly circulated. After this treatment, the chisels have a dead hard point and a tough or sorbitic shaft. They are then tempered or the point "let down." This is done by immersing them in another oil-bath which has been raised to about 215C.

(419F). The first result is, of course, to drop the temperature of the oil, which is gradually raised to its initial point. On approaching this temperature the chisels are taken out about every 2C. rise and tested with a file, and at a point between 215 and 220C. (428F.), when it is found that the desired temper has been reached, the chisels are removed, cleaned in sawdust, and allowed to cool in an iron tray.

No comparative tests of these chisels with those bought and treated by the old rule-of-thumb methods have been made, as no exact method of carrying out such tests mechanically, other than trying the hardness by the Brinell or scleroscope method, are known; any ordinary test depends so largely upon the dexterity of the operator. The universal opinion of foremen and those using the chisels as to the advantages of the ones receiving the standard treatment described is that a substantial improvement has been made. The chisels were not "normalized." Tests of chisels normalized at about 900C. (1,652F.) showed that they possessed no advantage.

Tools or pieces which have holes or deep depressions should be filled before heating unless it is necessary to have the holes hard on the inside. In that case the filling would keep the water away from the surface and no hardening would take place. Where filling is to be done, various materials are used by different hardeners. Fireclay and common putty seem to be favored by many.

Every mechanic who has had anything to do with the hardening of tools knows how necessary it is to take a cut from the surface of the bar that is to be hardened. The reason is that in the process of making the steel its outer surface has become decarbonized.

This change makes it low-carbon steel, which will of course not harden. It is necessary to remove from 1/16 to 1/4 in. of diameter on bars ranging from 1/2 to 4 in.

This same decarbonization occurs if the steel is placed in the forge in such a way that unburned oxygen from the blast can get at it. The carbon is oxidized, or burned out, converting the outside of the steel into low-carbon steel. The way to avoid this is to use a deep fire. Lack of this precaution is the cause of much spoiled work, not only because of decarbonization of the outer surface of the metal, but because the cold blast striking the hot steel acts like boiling hot water poured into an ice-cold gla.s.s tumbler.

The contraction sets up stresses that result in cracks when the piece is quenched.

PREVENTING DECARBONIZATION OF TOOL STEEL

It is especially important to prevent decarbonization in such tools as taps and form cutters, which must keep their shape after hardening and which cannot be ground away on the profile. For this reason it is well to put taps, reamers and the like into pieces of pipe in heating them. The pipe need be closed on one end only, as the air will not circulate readily unless there is an opening at both ends.

Even if used in connection with a blacksmith's forge the lead bath has an advantage for heating tools of complicated shapes, since it is easier to heat them uniformly and they are submerged and away from the air. The lead must be stirred frequently or the heat is not uniform in all parts of the lead bath. Covering the lead with powdered charcoal will largely prevent oxidization and waste of lead.

Such a bath is good for temperatures between 620 and 1,150F. At higher temperatures there is much waste of lead.

ANNEALING TO RELIEVE INTERNAL STRESSES

Work quenched from a high temperature and not afterward tempered will, if complex in shape, contain many internal stresses which may later cause it to break. They may be eased off by slight heating without materially lessening the hardness of the piece. One way to do this is to hold the piece over a fire and test it with a moistened finger. Another way is to dip the piece in boiling water after it has first been quenched in a cold bath. Such steps are not necessary with articles which will afterward be tempered and in which the strains are thus reduced.

In annealing steels the operation is similar to hardening, as far as heating is concerned. The critical temperatures are the proper ones for annealing as well as hardening. From this point on there is a difference, for annealing consists in cooling as slowly as possible. The slower the cooling the softer will be the steel.

Annealing may be done in the open air, in furnaces, in hot ashes or lime, in powdered charcoal, in burnt bone, in charred leather and in water. Open-air annealing will do as a crude measure in cases where it is desired to take the internal stresses out of a piece. Care must be taken in using this method that the piece is not exposed to drafts or placed on some cold substance that will chill it. Furnace annealing is much better and consists in heating the piece in a furnace to the critical temperature and then allowing the work and the furnace to cool together.

When lime or ashes are used as materials to keep air away from the steel and retain the heat, they should be first heated to make sure that they are dry. Powdered charcoal is used for high-grade annealing, the piece being packed in this substance in an iron box and both the work and the box raised to the critical temperature and then allowed to cool slowly. Machinery steel may be annealed in spent ground-bone that has been used in casehardening; _but tool steel must never be annealed in this way_, as it will be injured by the phosphorus contained in the bone. Charred leather is the best annealing material for high-carbon steel, because it prevents decarbonizing taking place.

DOUBLE ANNEALING

Water annealing consists in heating the piece, allowing it to cool in air until it loses its red heat and becomes black and then immediately quenching it in water. This plan works well for very low-carbon steel; but for high-carbon steel what is known as the "double annealing treatment" must be given, provided results are wanted quickly. The process consists in heating the steel quickly to 200 or more above the upper critical, cooling in air down through the recalescence point, then reheating it to just above the critical point and again cooling slowly through the recalescence, then quenching in oil. This process retains in the steel a fine-grained structure combined with softness.

QUENCHING TOOL STEEL

To secure proper hardness, the cooling of quenching of steel is as important as its heating. Quenching baths vary in nature, there being a large number of ways to cool a piece of steel in contrast to the comparatively few ways of heating it.

Plain water, brine and oil are the three most common quenching materials. Of these three the brine will give the most hardness, and plain water and oil come next. The colder that any of these baths is when the piece is put into it the harder will be the steel; but this does not mean that it is a good plan to dip the heated steel into a tank of ice water, for the shock would be so great that the bar would probably fly to pieces. In fact, the quenching bath must be sometimes heated a bit to take off the edge of the shock.

Brine solutions will work uniformly, or give the same degree of hardness, until they reach a temperature of 150F. above which their grip relaxes and the metals quenched in them become softer.

Plain water holds its grip up to a temperature of approximately 100F.; but oil baths, which are used to secure a slower rate of cooling, may be used up to 500 or more. A compromise is sometimes effected by using a bath consisting of an inch or two of oil floating on the surface of water. As the hot steel pa.s.ses through the oil, the shock is not as severe as if it were to be thrust directly into the water; and in addition, oil adheres to the tool and keeps the water from direct contact with the metal.

The old idea that mercury will harden steel more than any other quenching material has been exploded. A bath consisting of melted cyanide of pota.s.sium is useful for heating fine engraved dies and other articles that are required to come out free from scale. One must always be careful to provide a hood or exhaust system to get rid of the deadly fumes coming from the cyanide pot.

The one main thing to remember in hardening tool steel is to quench on a rising heat. This does not mean a rapid heating as a slow increase in temperature is much better in every way.

THE THEORY OF TEMPERING.--Steel that has been hardened is generally harder and more brittle than is necessary, and in order to bring it to the condition that meets our requirements a treatment called tempering is used. This increases the toughness of the steel, _i.e._, decrease the brittleness at the expense of a slight decrease in hardness.

There are several theories to explain this reaction, but generally it is only necessary to remember that in hardening we quench steel from the austenite phase, and, due to this rapid cooling, the normal change from austenite to the eutectoid composition does not have time to take place, and as a consequence the steel exists in a partially transformed, unstable and very hard condition at atmospheric temperatures. But owing to the internal rigidity which exists in cold metal the steel is unable to change into its more stable phase until atoms can rearrange themselves by the application of heat.

The higher the heat, the greater the transformation into the softer phases. As the transformation takes place, a certain amount of heat of reaction, which under slow cooling would have been released in the critical range, is now released and helps to cause a further slight reaction.

If a piece of steel is heated to a certain temperature and held there, the tempering color, instead of remaining unchanged at this temperature, will advance in the tempering-color scale as it would with increasing temperature. This means that the tempering colors do not absolutely correspond to the temperatures of steels, but the variations are so slight that we can use them in actual practice.

(See Table 23, page 158.)

TEMPERATURES TO USE.--As soon as the temperature of the steel reaches 100C. (212F.) the transformation begins, increasing in intensity as the temperature is raised, until finally when the lower critical range is reached, the steel has been all changed into the ordinary const.i.tuents of unhardened steels.

If a piece of polished steel is heated in an ordinary furnace, a thin film of oxides will form on its surface. The colors of this film change with temperature, and so, in tempering, they are generally used as an indication of the temperature of the steel. The steel should have at least one polished face so that this film of oxides may be seen.

An alternative method to the determination of temper by color is to temper by heating in an oil or salt bath. Oil baths can be used up to temperatures of 500F.; above this, fused-salt baths are required. The article to be tempered is put into the bath, brought up to and held at the required temperature for a certain length of time, and then cooled, either rapidly or slowly. This takes longer than the color method, but with low temperatures the results are more satisfactory, because the temperature of the bath can be controlled with a pyrometer. The tempering temperatures given in the following table are taken from a handbook issued by the Midvale Steel Company.

TABLE 23.--TEMPERING TEMPERATURES FOR STEELS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- Temperature | | Temperature | for 1 hr. | | for 8 min. | ---------------| Color |---------------| Uses Deg. F.|Deg. C.| |Deg. F.|Deg. C.| -------|-------|------------|-------|-------|------------------------------- 370 | 188 |Faint yellow| 460 | 238 |Sc.r.a.pers, bra.s.s-turning tools, | | | | |reamers, taps, milling cutters, | | | | |saw teeth.

390 | 199 |Light straw | 510 | 265 |Twist drills, lathe tools, | | | | |planer tools, finishing tools 410 | 210 |Dark straw | 560 | 293 |Stone tools, hammer faces, | | | | |chisels for hard work, boring | | | | |cutters.

430 | 221 |Brown | 610 | 321 |Trephining tools, stamps.