The Working of Steel.

by Fred H. Colvin and A. Juthe.

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

Advantage has been taken of a reprinting to revise, extensively, the portions of the book relating to the modern science of metallography. Considerable of the matter relating to the influence of chemical composition upon the properties of alloy steels has been rewritten. Furthermore, opportunity has been taken to include some brief notes on methods of physical testing--whereby the metallurgist judges of the excellence of his metal in advance of its actual performance in service.

NEW YORK, N. Y.,

_August, 1922._

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION

The ever increasing uses of steel in all industries and the necessity of securing the best results with the material used, make a knowledge of the proper working of steel more important than ever before.

For it is not alone the quality of the steel itself or the alloys used in its composition, but the proper working or treatment of the steel which determines whether or not the best possible use has been made of it.

With this in mind, the authors have drawn, not only from their own experience but from the best sources available, information as to the most approved methods of working the various kinds of steel now in commercial use. These include low carbon, high carbon and alloy steels of various kinds, and from a variety of industries.

The automotive field has done much to develop not only new alloys but efficient methods of working them and has been drawn on liberally so as to show the best practice. The practice in government a.r.s.enals on steels used in fire arms is also given.

While not intended as a treatise on steel making or metallurgy in any sense, it has seemed best to include a little information as to the making of different steels and to give considerable general information which it is believed will be helpful to those who desire to become familiar with the most modern methods of working steel.

It is with the hope that this volume, which has endeavored to give due credit to all sources of information, may prove of value to its readers and through them to the industry at large.

_July_, 1921.

THE AUTHORS.

INTRODUCTION

THE ABC OF IRON AND STEEL

In spite of all that has been written about iron and steel there are many hazy notions in the minds of many mechanics regarding them. It is not always clear as to just what makes the difference between iron and steel. We know that high-carbon steel makes a better cutting tool than low-carbon steel. And yet carbon alone does not make all the difference because we know that cast iron has more carbon than tool steel and yet it does not make a good cutting tool.

Pig iron or cast iron has from 3 to 5 per cent carbon, while good tool steel rarely has more than 1-1/4 per cent of carbon, yet one is soft and has a coa.r.s.e grain, while the other has a fine grain and can be hardened by heating and dipping in water. Most of the carbon in cast iron is in a form like graphite, which is almost pure carbon, and is therefore called graphitic carbon. The resemblance can be seen by noting how cast-iron borings blacken the hands just as does graphite, while steel turnings do not have the same effect.

The difference is due to the fact that the carbon in steel is not in a graphitic form as well as because it is present in smaller quant.i.ties.

In making steel in the old way the cast iron was melted and the carbon and other impurities burned out of it, the melted iron being stirred or "puddled," meanwhile. The resulting puddled iron, also known as wrought iron, is very low in carbon; it is tough, and on being broken appears to be made up of a bundle of long fibers.

Then the iron was heated to redness for several days in material containing carbon (charcoal) until it absorbed the desired amount, which made it steel, just as case-hardening iron or steel adds carbon to the outer surface of the metal. The carbon absorbed by the iron does not take on a graphitic form, however, as in the case of cast iron, but enters into a chemical compound with the iron, a hard brittle substance called "cement.i.te" by metallurgists.

In fact, the difference between the hard, brittle cement.i.te and the soft, greasy graphite, accounts for many of the differences between steel and gray cast iron. Wrought iron, which has very little carbon of any sort in it, is fairly soft and tough. The properties of wrought iron are the properties of pure iron. As more and more carbon is introduced into the iron, it combines with the iron and distributes itself throughout the metal in extremely small crystals of cement.i.te, and this brittle, hard substance lends more and more hardness and strength to the steel, at the expense of the original toughness of the iron. As more and more carbon is contained in the alloy--for steel is a true alloy--it begins to appear as graphite, and its properties counteract the remaining brittle cement.i.te. Eventually, in gray cast iron, we have properties which would be expected of wrought iron, whose tough metallic texture was shot through with flakes of slippery, weak graphite.

But to return to the methods of making steel tools in use 100 years ago.

The iron bars, after heating in charcoal, were broken and the carbon content judged by the fracture. Those which had been in the hottest part of the furnace would have the deepest "case" and highest carbon.

So when the steel was graded, and separated into different piles, a few bars of like kind were broken into short lengths, melted in fire-clay crucibles at an intense white heat, cast carefully into iron molds, and the resulting ingot forged into bars under a crude trip hammer. This melting practice is still in use for crucible steel, and will be described further on page 4.

THE WORKING OF STEEL

ANNEALING, HEAT TREATING AND HARDENING

OF

CARBON AND ALLOY STEEL

CHAPTER I

STEEL MAKING

There are four processes now used for the manufacture of steel.

These are: The Bessemer, Open Hearth, Crucible and Electric Furnace Methods.

BESSEMER PROCESS

The bessemer process consists of charging molten pig iron into a huge, brick-lined pot called the bessemer converter, and then in blowing a current of air through holes in the bottom of the vessel into the liquid metal.

The air blast burns the white hot metal, and the temperature increases.

The action is exactly similar to what happens in a fire box under forced draft. And in both cases some parts of the material burn easier and more quickly than others. Thus it is that some of the impurities in the pig iron--including the carbon--burn first, and if the blast is shut off when they are gone but little of the iron is destroyed. Unfortunately sulphur, one of the most dangerous impurities, is not expelled in the process.

A bessemer converter is shown in Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 shows the details of its construction. This shows how the air blast is forced in from one side, through the trunnion, and up through the metal.

Where the steel is finished the converter is tilted, or swung on its trunnions, the blast turned off, and the steel poured out of the top.

OPEN HEARTH PROCESS

The open hearth furnace consists of a big brick room with a low arched roof. It is charged with pig iron and sc.r.a.p through doors in the side walls.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 1.--A typical Bessemer converter.]

Through openings at one end of the furnace come hot air and gas, which burn in the furnace, producing sufficient heat to melt the charge and refine it of its impurities. Lime and other nonmetallic substances are put in the furnace. These melt, forming a "slag"

which floats on the metal and aids materially in the refining operations.

In the bessemer process air is forced _through_ the metal. In the open-hearth furnace the metal is protected from the flaming gases by a slag covering. Therefore it is reasonable to suppose that the final product will not contain so much gas.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 2.--Action of Bessemer converter.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 3.--Regenerative open hearth furnace.]

A diagram of a modern regenerative furnace is shown in Fig. 3.

Air and gas enter the hearth through chambers loosely packed with hot fire brick, burn, and exit to the chimney through another pair of chambers, giving to them some of the heat which would otherwise waste. The direction is reversed about every twenty minutes by changing the position of the dampers.