The region round the little town of Loxa, on the southern frontier of Ecuador, is the original home of the chinchona. In its sheltered ravines and dense forests were found those precious trees which first made known to the world the healing virtues of Peruvian bark. They grow at a height above the sea of from 6200 to 8200 feet. The trees are there from 30 to 48 feet high, with three or more stems growing from the same root. The leaves are like those already described. The bark is black when exposed to the sun and wind, but of a brownish colour when surrounded by other trees; and is always covered with lichens. The bark from the Loxa region is known as crown bark; that from Chimborazo, as red bark; while in the Huanaco region of Northern Peru grey bark is produced.

When first the demand for the bark was established, bark-collectors, called _cascarilleros_, entered the forests in parties of a dozen or more, supplied with food and tools. At their head was a searcher (_cateador_), who, climbing a high tree, looked out for the _manchas_, or clumps of chinchona-trees, which experience taught him to know by their dark colour and the peculiar reflection of the light from their leaves amidst those endless expanses of forest. Having marked the spot, he descended, and led his party, sometimes for hours together, through the tangled wilderness, using the wood-knife to mark his way to the chinchona clump. As soon as it was found, rude huts were built, and the parties commenced their work. Having with their axes laid the tree level with the ground, cutting it as close as possible to the roots, the work of stripping off the bark was commenced. The original mode of doing this is still continued. It is done by dividing the stems into pieces of uniform length. The bark is then cut lengthwise, so as to remove the rind without injuring the wood, or severing any of the fibres. In a few days the bark is taken off in strips as broad as possible, and is afterwards pressed out into flat pieces. That, however, taken from the thinner branches is allowed to retain its form, and is known as quill bark--called by the natives _canuto_; that from the solid trunk is called _tabla_ or _plancha_. It is sewn up in coa.r.s.e canvas, with an outer covering of fresh hide, forming packages called _serons_. Thus prepared, it is transported to the coast for shipment.

From the careless way in which the bark-collectors have hewn down the trees, often digging up the roots themselves, the production has greatly decreased. When the root is allowed to remain, and the stem hewn as near as possible to it, an after-growth is produced, which, in the milder regions, in the s.p.a.ce of six years again produces bark. In the colder regions twenty years are required before a tree is fit to be cut down.

With great care and trouble chinchona plants and seeds have been transported from South America to India by Professor Markham; and in the mountainous regions of the East the tree is now cultivated and flourishing. It had some years before been carried by the Dutch to Java, where, however, from want of sufficient care at first, its cultivation has not been so successful as it appears to be in India, Coca.

The native Indian, as he climbs the dizzy precipice, or pa.s.ses over the rocking bridge, in his journey across the rugged mountains, or leads his troop of llamas to the seash.o.r.e, or labours in the dark mines, bringing up vast weights from the bowels of the earth, is enabled to bear the fatigue he is called on to undergo by putting a few dried leaves into his mouth, which he chews, and replenishes from time to time. Thus the coca leaf is a great source of comfort and enjoyment. As he journeys, his _chuspa_ or coca-bag, made of llama cloth, dyed red and blue in patterns, is hung over his shoulders. In his bag he also carries small cakes--composed of carbonate of potash mixed with lime and water--called _clipta_. Sitting down, he first puts a few leaves into his mouth, which he chews, and turns over and over till he has formed a ball. He then adds a small piece of the cake; and, sustained by the wonderful qualities of the morsel, will go on for many hours without food. He usually replenishes his mouth about three times in the day.

The smell of the leaf is agreeable and aromatic, and gives out a grateful fragrance. When, however, used to excess, like other narcotics, coca--though the least injurious--is still prejudicial to health.

The coca plant (Erythoxylon coca) grows at an elevation of between 5000 and 6000 feet above the level of the ocean, in the warm valleys of the eastern slopes of the Andes, where rain frequently falls. It is from four to six feet high, with straight and alternate branches. The leaves, which are of a light green, are alternate, and in form and size similar to tea leaves. The flowers, which are solitary, have a small yellowish white corolla. It requires careful cultivation. It is produced from seeds, and the plants are then transplanted into soil carefully weeded and broken up. It is found growing on terraces on the mountainsides, which will allow of but a single row of plants. At the end of eighteen months the plants yield their first harvest, and continue to yield for upwards of forty years. The green leaves, when picked, are carefully spread out in the sun to dry. The name of "coca"

is bestowed on them only when they are dried and prepared for use.

Some writers, objecting altogether to stimulating narcotics, a.s.sert that the use of coca produces all the evil results of opium; but this, from the evidence of many enlightened travellers, seems not to be the case.

Taken immoderately, no doubt it is injurious,--as is tea, coffee, tobacco, or wine; but used as it generally is by the natives, it is to them a great blessing. The valleys, however, most suitable for its cultivation are reputed to be unhealthy.

So valuable was coca considered in the days of the Incas, that divine honours were paid to it, and it was especially the property of the sovereign. Even at the present day the miners of Peru throw a quid of coca against the hard veins of ore, under the belief that they are thereby more easily worked. The natives also sometimes put coca in the mouth of the dying man, believing that if he can taste the fragrant leaf it is a sure sign of his future happiness.

Its moderate use is considered wholesome; and European travellers who have chewed coca state that they could thus endure long abstinence from food without inconvenience, and that it enabled them to ascend precipitous mountainsides with a feeling of lightness and elasticity, and without losing breath.

PART THREE, CHAPTER TEN.

HUMMING-BIRDS (TROCHILIDAE) OF THE CORDILLERAS AND WESTERN COAST.

We should scarcely have expected to find the smallest specimens of the feathered tribe inhabiting the same region as the mighty, coa.r.s.e-feeding condor; but whereas the latter pounces down on his carrion banquet into the plains below, the little humming-bird seeks his food from the bright flowers which clothe the mountainside, or the minute insects which fly amid them.

Humming-birds are found throughout the whole of the New World, from the borders of the great Canadian lakes, along the entire range of the Cordilleras, down to the sh.o.r.es of Tierra del Fuego; also in the West India Islands, and over the whole wide-extending plains watered by the Orinoco, the Amazon, and other great rivers which empty themselves into the Atlantic. The greater number of the species exist about the equator, and, as might be expected, diminish as we proceed either to the south or north.

They obtain their name on account of the humming sound which their wings produce when they are hovering over the flowers in which they seek their food. The sound, however, varies in the species; and the well-practised ear of the naturalist is often able to distinguish without difficulty one from the other. Some are furnished with strong wings, with which they can extend their flight over a large extent of country; and many are migratory. Others again have only small wings, and are compelled to remain always in the same locality. So rapid is their flight, that the eye can scarcely distinguish the little bird as it cleaves the air; and when hovering over a flower, the wings appear like filmy grey fans on either side.

The food of most species consists partly of insects and partly of the honey extracted from flowers. In order to obtain its food from the deep recesses of flowers, it possesses a long delicate beak; in some birds straight, in others curved downwards, while some, again, have a double curve. These variations in form are undoubtedly to suit the particular flowers on which they feed. By means of the peculiar structure of its tongue, which is long, filamentous, and doubled nearly to the base, it is enabled to project it to a great distance--even into the very depths of the largest flowers.

There are upwards of three hundred species of these beautiful birds, and others are being constantly discovered--one vying with the other in beauty and richness of plumage--truly described as the "feathered gems of the mountain and forest." Some humming-birds tower, like the lark, to a great height in the air; while others keep always near the ground, among the shrubs in which they live.

The nests of humming-birds vary in form and structure, but they are all of a most delicate nature. The external parts of some are formed of light grey lichen, and so perfectly arranged round it as to appear at a little distance as if only forming part of the branch to which it is attached. The interior consists of the silky fibres of the cotton-tree, extremely delicate and soft. The female lays a couple of eggs only, purely white, and about the size of peas. Ten days are required for their hatching, and the birds raise two broods in a season. When first hatched they are not larger than an ordinary-sized fly. Small as is the male humming-bird, he is a brave little fellow, and will courageously fly at the largest bird which approaches his nest; while, by the rapidity of his flight, he can avoid the attacks of even the swiftest of the larger race.

There is a remarkable circ.u.mstance connected with humming-birds, especially in lofty regions, where they are more particularly susceptible of electric influences. It is well known that in many regions small birds are found killed after a thunder-storm, in consequence of the amount of electricity in the air. The humming-birds, as if conscious of this danger, build their nests of peculiar form, and of materials which are bad conductors of electricity, within which they are thoroughly protected. The nests of some are shaped like inverted cones, tapering to a fine point--that, as is supposed, the electricity which would destroy the delicate young ones, or the vitality of the eggs, may pa.s.s off into the air.

Their notes are very feeble, rarely rising into a whistle. In one week after they are hatched, the young birds are ready to fly, but they are fed by their parents for nearly another week. Their plumage, however, does not attain its full brilliancy till the succeeding spring.

But we must confine ourselves to the humming-birds of the Cordilleras, on the western coast.

SWORD-BILL HUMMING-BIRD.

At the north of the range, between Santa Fe de Bogota and Quito, at an elevation often of 12,000 feet, is found the sword-bill humming-bird.

Its name is derived from the length of its beak, which is nearly as long as its body, and enables it to seek its food from the long pendent corollas of the Brugmansae. Nothing can exceed the elegance of its movements as it probes the pendent blossoms, searching to their inmost depths. Its nest, woven with wonderful skill and beauty of construction, is fastened to the end of a twig. The head and upper part of the body of the male bird are green, glossed with gold in some parts, and with bronze in others. The wings are dark black-brown, with a purple gloss; while the tail is dark black, the upper surface being bronzed. A conspicuous white, slightly elongated spot exists behind each eye, and on each side of the chest there is a broad crescent-shaped mark of light green. The under parts are of a bronzed green, and the under tail-coverts are flaked with a little white.

COPPER-BELLIED PUFF-LEG.

In the neighbourhood of Santa Fe, another very beautiful and curious little bird, the copper-bellied puff-leg, is found, at an elevation of about 9000 feet. (Unlike the greater number of birds, the female humming-birds are generally as richly ornamented as the male.) It is named from the curious white puffs or ruffs--looking as if formed of swan's-down--on the legs. The head of the male, the sides of the neck, and back, are green, with a bronzed tint, except on the tail-coverts, where the green is pure, and of metallic brilliancy. The tail is black, with a purple gloss; the throat is of a shining, metallic green; while the breast and under portion of the body is green, glossed with gold.

This bird, probably on account of the vegetation of the locality, from which it obtains its food, is restricted to a narrow mountain-ridge, not three-quarters of a mile in width.

WHITE-BOOTED RACKET-TAIL.

The rapid flying white-booted racket-tail is likewise common near Santa Fe. It possesses m.u.f.fs, like the former, and is found at an elevation of nearly 10,000 feet. It is named from the long, racket-shaped feathers of the tail, which, when flying, are in constant motion, waving softly in the air, opening and closing in the most beautiful manner. In its flight it may vie with the arrow as it darts from a bow; and when the bird rapidly cleaves the air, the tail-feathers lie straight behind it.

The chief colour of this bird is a bronzed green, the upper tail-coverts being of a richer and redder hue. The wings are of a purple-brown, as is the tail; but the rackets are black, shot with green. The feet are yellow, with two beautiful white ruffs surrounding the legs.

COLUMBIAN THORN-BILL.

In the same district, invariably keeping at the bottom of the valleys, is found the Columbian thorn-bill. It does not even mount, as do many humming-birds, to the tops of the trees, but seeks its food among the low, flowering shrubs. It is of a golden green colour on the upper parts, and of a dull green below; except on its curious tuft, which hangs from the chin, and is of a light green at the base, and a purple-red towards the points. The wings are of a purple-brown hue, as is the tail, with a bronzed gloss, while the under tail-coverts are brown-yellow. It is curious that the hen, though in other respects like the male, has no beard.

BLACK WARRIOR.

At the height of 13,000 feet above the ocean is found a curious bird, which, from the pointed plume crowning the top of its head, and the long beard-like projection from its chin, is very appropriately called the helmet-crest or black warrior. It inhabits regions immediately below the line of perpetual snow, where we should least expect to find so delicate a creature. Its food it gathers from the thinly scattered shrubs projecting from the ledges of rock near the snow. Its flight is swift, but very short. When launching itself from the lofty height on which it is perched, it flies obliquely downwards, uttering at the same time a plaintive, whistling sound. It is more sedate in its habits than its brethren, nor does it seem to partake of their joyous spirit. The head and neck of the male are black, with a line running along the centre. The long beard is white, and round the neck and back of the head is a broad band of white. The upper surface of the body and the two central feathers of the tail are bronzed green, the others being of a warm reddish bronze. Its length is a little over five inches.

The female is chiefly brown, and possesses no beard or helmet-like plume; it is also considerably smaller.

THE SICKLE-BILL.

In the humming-birds, we see the same perfect adaptation of their construction to their peculiar wants which is found throughout the whole animal creation. This is beautifully exhibited in the sickle-bill, which is occasionally found in Bogota. Its bill is very short and sharply curved, in order that it may enter the short, curved flowers of that region. It is generally of a duller hue than most of its tribe.

Its head and small crest are blackish-brown, each feather having a spot of buff on its tip. The upper part of the body is of a dark, glossy green, slightly touched with buff. The under part is a brownish-black, with a few buff streaks upon the throat and breast. It is about four and a half inches long.

MARS' SUN-ANGEL.

Mr Gould describes the Mars' sun-angel as among the most beautiful of the genus Heliangelus inhabiting the northern end of the Cordilleras.

"It has all the charms of novelty to recommend it, and it stands alone among its congeners; no other member of the genus, similarly coloured, having been discovered up to the present time. The throat vies with the radiant topaz, while the band on the forehead rivals in brilliancy the frontlet of every other species. The male bird has a fiery red mark on its forehead, and the crown of the head and upper surface of the body are bronzed green. The throat is ornamented with a gorget of deep fiery red, and below it is a crescent-shaped band of light buff, while the under part is of a deeper buff, changing to green at the sides. The tail is of a bronzed brown, with the two centre feathers of bronzed green. The female is dest.i.tute of the red mark on the throat and forehead."

HELIANGELUS CLARISSA.

Another sun-angel, the Heliangelus Clarissae, has a deep ruby crimson gorget.

SNOW-CAP HUMMING-BIRD.

In New Granada is also found the curious little snow-cap humming-bird, one of the most rare of the Trochilidae. It is of a brown colour, with a coppery hue, in which, in certain lights, a purple reflection can be perceived. The crown of the head and the tip of the tail-feathers are of a dazzling white.

Mr Gould describes one he saw perched on a twig, pluming its feathers.

At first he was doubtful whether so small an object could be a bird. It was standing over a pool of water. "At first the little creature would poise itself about three feet or so above the water, and then, as quick as thought, dive downwards, so as to dip its miniature head in the placid pool. Then up again it would fly to its original position, as quickly as it had descended. These movements of darting up and down it repeated in rapid succession, producing a wonderful disturbance of the surface of the water for so diminutive a creature. After a considerable number of dips it alighted on a twig near at hand, and commenced pluming its feathers."

SPANGLED COQUETTE.

The spangled coquette, like all of its genus, possesses a well-defined crest on the head, and a number of feathers projecting from the neck.

This singular crest it can raise or depress at will, producing a curious effect in the appearance of the little bird. When depressed, the crest lies fiat, and projects on either side, so that the sparkling eyes can scarcely be seen. The crest and feathers projecting from the neck are of a light, ruddy chestnut, the latter having dark bronzed green spots on the tip. The head is of the same colour; the throat and face of a l.u.s.trous green. Below the gorget projects a small crossing from side to side, and the rest of the plumage is of a dark, ruddy chestnut colour.