[Ill.u.s.tration]

THE STORY OF THE THIRD SHEYKH AND THE MULE.

The mule that thou seest was my wife: she became enamoured of a black slave; and when I discovered her with him, she took a mug of water, and, having uttered a spell over it, sprinkled me, and transformed me into a dog. In this state, I ran to the shop of a butcher, whose daughter saw me, and, being skilled in enchantment, restored me to my original form, and instructed me to enchant my wife in the manner thou beholdest.--And now I hope that thou wilt remit to me also a third of the merchant's offence. Divinely was he gifted who said,

Sow good, even on an unworthy soil; for it will not be lost wherever it is sown.

When the sheykh had thus finished his story, the Jinnee shook with delight, and remitted the remaining third of his claim to the merchant's blood. The merchant then approached the sheykhs, and thanked them, and they congratulated him on his safety; and each went his way.

But this, said Shahrazad, is not more wonderful than the story of the fisherman. The King asked her, And what is the story of the fisherman?

And she related it as follows:--

[Ill.u.s.tration]

NOTES TO CHAPTER FIRST.

NOTE 1. The words "in a garden" are omitted in my original; but they are required by the sequel. I may here remark, that, in future, when I find trifling insertions of this kind to be requisite in my translation, I shall not deem it necessary to mention them in a note.

NOTE 2. An Eastern traveller often makes a long journey with no other enc.u.mbrance than a well-filled pair of saddle-bags: in one bag he puts his provisions; and in the other, such articles of clothing as he may require in addition to those in which he sets out, including a spare shirt, and perhaps no other clean linen: for he is as indifferent with regard to this comfort as he is careful respecting his _personal_ cleanliness.

NOTE 3. Perhaps no reader of this work will require to be told that the date has not a _sh.e.l.l_. I only make this remark on account of an error in the old translation.--As dates are very nutritious, and are preserved by being merely dried in the sun, they are an excellent article of provision for travellers.

NOTE 4. The merchant was culpably careless: before throwing aside the date-stone with sufficient force to kill a Jinnee who happened to be near him (though at the time invisible), he should have asked permission by the exclamation "Destoor!" as explained in a note appended to the Introduction.

NOTE 5.--_On Fate and Destiny._ The belief in fate and destiny ("el-?a?a wa-l-?adar") exercises a most powerful influence upon the actions and character of the Muslims; and it is therefore highly important that the reader of the present work should be acquainted with the notions which these people entertain respecting such matters of faith. I use two words (perhaps the best that our language affords) to express corresponding Arabic terms, which some persons regard as synonymous, but others distinguish by different shades of meaning. On what I consider the best authority, the word which I render "fate" respects the decrees of G.o.d in a general sense; while that which I translate "destiny" relates to the particular applications of those decrees. In such senses these terms are here to be understood when separately employed.

Many Muslims hold that fate is, in some respects, absolute and unchangeable; in others, admitting of alteration; and almost all of them _act_, in many of the affairs of life, as if this were their belief. In the former case, it is called "el-?a?a el-Mo?kam:" in the latter, "el-?a?a el-Mubram" (which term, without the explanation here given, might be regarded as exactly synonymous with the former). Hence, the Prophet, it is said, prayed to be preserved from the latter, as knowing that it might be changed; and in allusion to this changeable fate, G.o.d, we are told, says, "G.o.d will cancel what He pleaseth, and confirm;"[111]

while, on the contrary, the fate which is termed "Mo?kam" is appointed "destiny" decreed by G.o.d.[112]

Many doctors have argued, that destiny respects only the _final state_ of a certain portion of men (believers and unbelievers); and that, in general, man is endowed with free will, which he should exercise according to the laws of G.o.d and his own conscience and judgment, praying to G.o.d for a blessing on his endeavours, or imploring the intercession of the Prophet, or of any of the saints, in his favour, and propitiating them by offering alms or sacrifices in their names; relying upon G.o.d for the result, which he may then, and then only, attribute to fate or destiny. They hold, therefore, that it is criminal to attempt resistance to the will when its dictates are conformable with the laws of G.o.d and our natural consciences and prudence, and so pa.s.sively to await the fulfilment of G.o.d's decrees.--The doctrine of the ?ur-an and the Traditions respecting the decrees of G.o.d, or fate and destiny, appears, however, to be, that they are altogether absolute and unchangeable,--written, in the beginning of the creation, on the "Preserved Tablet," in heaven; that G.o.d hath predestined every event and action, evil as well as good; at the same time commanding and approving good, and forbidding and hating evil; and that the "cancelling"

mentioned in the preceding paragraph relates (as the context seems to shew) to the abrogation of former scriptures, or revelations; not of fate. But still it must be held that He hath not predestined the _will_; though He sometimes inclines it to good, and the Devil sometimes inclines it to evil. It is asked, then, If we have the power to will, but not the power to perform otherwise than as G.o.d hath predetermined, how can we be regarded as responsible beings? The answer to this is, that our actions are judged good or evil according to our intentions, if we have faith: good actions or intentions, it should be added, only increase, and do not cause, our happiness, if we are believers; and evil actions or intentions only increase our misery if we are unbelievers or irreligious: for the Muslim holds that he is to be admitted into heaven only by the mercy of G.o.d, on account of his faith; and to be rewarded in proportion to his good works.

The Prophet's a.s.sertions on the subject of G.o.d's decrees are considered of the highest importance as explanatory of the ?ur-an.--"Whatever is in the universe," said he, "is by the order of G.o.d."--"G.o.d hath pre-ordained five things on his servants; the duration of life, their actions, their dwelling-places, their travels, and their portions."--"There is not one among you whose sitting-place is not written by G.o.d, whether in the fire or in paradise."[113]--Some of the Companions of the Prophet, on hearing the last-quoted saying, asked him, "O Prophet, since G.o.d hath appointed our places, may we confide in this, and abandon our religious and moral duties?" He answered, "No: because the happy will do good works, and those who are of the miserable will do bad works."--The following of his sayings further ill.u.s.trate this subject.--"When G.o.d hath ordered a creature to die in any particular place, He causeth his wants to direct him to that place."--A Companion asked, "O Prophet of G.o.d, inform me respecting charms, and the medicines which I swallow, and shields which I make use of for protection, whether they prevent any of the orders of G.o.d." Mo?ammad answered, "These also are by the order of G.o.d."[114] "There is a medicine for every pain: then, when the medicine reaches the pain, it is cured by the order of G.o.d."[115]--When a Muslim, therefore, feels an inclination to make use of medicine for the cure of a disease, he should do so, in the hope of its being predestined that he shall be so cured.

On the predestination of diseases, I find the following curious quotation and remark in a ma.n.u.script work, by Es-Suyoo?ee, in my possession.--"El-?aleemee says, 'Communicable or contagious diseases are six: small-pox, measles, itch or scab, foul breath or putridity, melancholy, and pestilential maladies; and diseases engendered are also six: leprosy, hectic, epilepsy, gout, elephantiasis, and phthisis.' But this does not contradict the saying of the Prophet, 'There is no transition of diseases by contagion or infection, nor any omen that brings evil:' for the transition here meant is one occasioned by the disease itself; whereas the effect is of G.o.d, who causes pestilence to spread when there is intercourse with the diseased."[116]--A Bedawee asked the Prophet, "What is the condition of camels which stay in the deserts? verily, you might say, they are deer, in health and in cleanness of skin; then they mix with mangy camels, and they become mangy also." Mo?ammad said, "What made the first camel mangy?"[117]

Notwithstanding, however, the arguments which have been here adduced, and many others that might be added, declaring or implying the unchangeable nature of all G.o.d's decrees, I have found it to be the opinion of my own Muslim friends, that G.o.d may be induced, by supplication, to change certain of his decrees; at least, those regarding degrees of happiness or misery in this world and the next; and that such is the general opinion, appears from a form of prayer which is repeated in the mosques on the eve of the middle (or fifteenth day) of the month of Sha?ban; when it is believed that such portions of G.o.d's decrees as const.i.tute the destinies of all living creatures for the ensuing year, are confirmed and fixed. In this prayer it is said, "O G.o.d, if Thou _hast recorded_ me in thine abode, upon 'the Original of the Book' [the Preserved Tablet], miserable, or unfortunate, or scanted in my sustenance, _cancel_, O G.o.d, of thy goodness, my misery, and misfortune, and scanty allowance of sustenance, and confirm me, in thine abode, upon the Original of the Book, as happy, and provided for, and directed to good," &c.[118]

The Arabs in general constantly have recourse both to charms and medicines, not only for the cure, but also for the prevention of diseases. They have, indeed, a strange pa.s.sion for medicine, which shows that they do not consider fate as altogether unconditional. Nothing can exceed the earnestness with which they often press a European traveller for a dose; and the more violent the remedy, the better are they pleased. The following case will serve as an example:--Three donkey-drivers, conveying the luggage of two British travellers from Boola? to Cairo, opened a bottle which they observed in a basket, and finding it to contain, as they had suspected, brandy, emptied it down their throats: but he who had the last, on turning up the bottle, got the tail of a scorpion into his mouth; and, looking through the bottle, to his great horror, saw that it contained a number of these reptiles, with tarantulas, vipers, and beetles. Thinking that they had poisoned themselves, but not liking to rely upon fate, they persuaded a man to come to me for medicine. He introduced the subject by saying, "O Efendee, do an act of kindness: there are three men poisoned; in your mercy give them medicine, and save their lives:" and then he related the whole affair, without concealing the theft. I replied, that they did not deserve medicine; but he urged that, by giving it, I should obtain an immense reward. "Yes," said I; "'he who saveth a soul alive shall be as if he had saved the lives of all mankind.'"[119] I said this to try the feeling of the applicant, who, expressing admiration of my knowledge, urged me to be quick, lest the men should die; thus showing himself to be no unconditional fatalist. I gave him three strong doses of tartar emetic; and he soon came back to thank me, saying that the medicine was most admirable, for the men had hardly swallowed it, when they almost vomited their hearts and livers, and everything else in their bodies.

From a distrust in faith, some Muslims even shut themselves up during the prevalence of plague; but this practice is generally condemned. A Syrian friend of mine, who did so, nearly had his door broken open by his neighbours. Another of my friends, one of the most distinguished of the 'Ulama, confessed to me his conviction of the lawfulness of quarantine, and argued well in favour of it; but said that he dared not openly avow such an opinion. "The Apostle of G.o.d," said he, "G.o.d bless and save him! hath commanded that we should not enter a city where there is pestilence, nor go out from it. Why did he say, 'Enter it not?'--because, by so doing, we should expose ourselves to the disease.

Why did he say, 'Go not out from it?'--because, by so doing, we should carry the disease to others. The Prophet was tenderly considerate of our welfare: but the present Muslims in general are like bulls [brute beasts]; and they hold the meaning of this command to be, Go not into a city where there is pestilence, because this would be rashness; and go not out from it, because this would be distrusting G.o.d's power to save you from it."

Many of the vulgar and ignorant among modern Muslims, believe that the unchangeable destinies of every man are written upon his head, in what are termed the sutures of the skull.

NOTE 6. The paragraph thus commencing, and the verses comprised in it, are translated from the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred nights.

NOTE 7. It is a common custom for a Muslim, on a military expedition, or during a long journey, especially in the desert, to carry his grave-linen with him; for he is extremely careful that he may be buried according to the law.[120] It seems to be implied in our tale, that the merchant hoped that the Jinnee, or some pa.s.sing traveller, would wash, shroud, and bury him.

NOTE 8. It is thus that the Arab women generally do on the occasion of a funeral.

NOTE 9.--_On the t.i.tle of_ Sheykh. "Sheykh" is an appellation which literally signifies "an elder," or "an aged person," and in this sense it is here used; but it is also commonly employed as synonymous with our appellation of "Mister;" and particularly applied to a learned man, or a reputed saint. In every case, it is a t.i.tle of respect, and never given to any but a Muslim.

NOTE 10. "Jann" is here used as synonymous with "Jinn."

NOTE 11. A cousin (the daughter of a paternal uncle) is often chosen as a wife, on account of the tie of blood, which is likely to attach her more strongly to her husband; or on account of an affection conceived in early years. The various customs relating to marriage, I shall describe on a future occasion.

NOTE 12. A bride is called young, by the Arabs, when she is about twelve years of age. In the Calcutta edition of the first two hundred nights, the wife in this tale is said to have been of this age when she was first married.

NOTE 13.--_On Slaves._ A slave, among Muslims, is either a person taken captive in war, or carried off by force, and being at the time of capture an infidel; or the offspring of a female slave by another slave, or by any man who is not her owner, or by her owner, if he does not acknowledge himself to be the father: but the offspring of a male slave by a free woman is free. A person who embraces the Mohammadan faith after having been made a slave, does not by this act become free, unless he flees from a foreign infidel master to a Muslim country, and there becomes a Mohammadan. A person cannot have as a slave one whom he acknowledges to be within the prohibited degrees of marriage.[121]--The slaves of the Arabs are mostly from Abyssinia and the Negro countries: a few, mostly in the houses of wealthy individuals, are from Georgia and Circa.s.sia.

Slaves have no civil liberty; but are entirely under the authority of their owners, whatever may be the religion, s.e.x, or age, of the latter; and can possess no property, unless by the owner's permission. The owner is entire master, while he pleases, of the person and goods of his slave; and of the offspring of his female slave, which, if begotten by him or presumed to be so, he may recognise as his own legitimate child, or not: the child, if recognised by him, enjoys the same privileges as the offspring of a free wife; and if not recognised by him, is his slave. The master may even kill his own slave with impunity for any offence; and he incurs but a slight punishment (as imprisonment for a period at the discretion of the judge) if he kills him wantonly. He may give away or sell his slaves, excepting in some cases which will be mentioned; and may marry them to whom he will, but not separate them when married. A slave, however, according to most of the doctors, cannot have more than two wives at the same time. Unemanc.i.p.ated slaves, at the death of their master, become the property of his heirs; and when an emanc.i.p.ated slave dies, leaving no male descendants or collateral relations, the former master is the heir; or, if he be dead, his heirs inherit the slave's property. As a slave enjoys less advantages than a free person, the law, in some cases, ordains that his punishment for an offence shall be half of that to which the free is liable to the same offence, or even less than half: if it be a fine, or pecuniary compensation, it must be paid by the owner, to the amount, if necessary, of the value of the slave, or the slave must be given in compensation.

The owner, but not the part-owner, may cohabit with any of his female slaves who is a Mohammadan, a Christian, or a Jewess, if he has not married her to another man; but not with two or more who are sisters, or who are related to each other in any of the degrees which would prevent their both being his wives at the same time if they were free: after having so lived with one, he must entirely relinquish such intercourse with her before he can do the same with another who is so related to her. He cannot have this intercourse with a pagan slave. A Christian or Jew may have slaves, but not enjoy the privilege above mentioned with one who is a Mohammadan. The master must wait a certain period (generally from a month to three months) after the acquisition of a female slave, before he can have such intercourse with her. If he find any fault in her within three days, he is usually allowed to return her.

When a man, from being the husband, becomes the master, of a slave, the marriage is dissolved, and he cannot continue to live with her but as her master, enjoying, however, all a master's privileges; unless he emanc.i.p.ates her; in which case he may again take her as his wife with her consent. In like manner, when a woman, from being the wife, becomes the possessor, of a slave, the marriage is dissolved, and cannot be renewed unless she emanc.i.p.ates him, and he consents to the re-union.

Complete and immediate emanc.i.p.ation is sometimes granted to a slave gratuitously, or for a future pecuniary compensation. It is conferred by means of a written doc.u.ment, or by a verbal declaration (expressed in the words, "Thou art free," or some similar phrase) in the presence of two witnesses, or by returning the certificate of sale obtained from the former owner. Future emanc.i.p.ation is sometimes covenanted to be granted on the fulfilment of certain conditions; and more frequently, to be conferred on the occasion of the owner's death. In the latter case, the owner cannot sell the slave to whom he has made this promise: and, as he cannot alienate by will more than one-third of the whole property that he leaves, the law ordains that, if the value of the said slave exceeds that portion, the slave must obtain and pay the additional sum. When a female slave has borne a child to her master, and he acknowledges the child to be his own, he cannot sell this slave, and she becomes free on his death.

Abyssinian and white female slaves are kept by many men of the middle and higher cla.s.ses, and often instead of wives, as requiring less expense, and being more subservient; but they are generally indulged with the same luxuries as free ladies; their vanity is gratified by costly dresses and ornaments, and they rank high above free servants; as do also the male slaves. Those called Abyssinians appear to be a mixed race between negroes and whites; and are from the territories of the Gallas. They are mostly kidnapped and sold by their own countrymen. The negro female slaves, as few of them have considerable personal attractions (which is not the case with the Abyssinians, many of whom are very beautiful), are usually employed only in cooking, and other menial offices. The female slaves of the higher cla.s.ses are often instructed in plain needlework and embroidery, and sometimes in music and dancing. Formerly, many of them possessed sufficient literary accomplishments to quote largely from esteemed poems, or even to compose extemporary verses, which they would often accompany with the lute. The condition of many concubine slaves is happy; and that of many, quite the contrary. These, and all other slaves of either s.e.x, are generally treated with kindness; but at first they are usually importuned, and not unfrequently used with much harshness, to induce them to embrace the Mohammadan faith; which almost all of them do. Their services are commonly light: the usual office of the male white slave, who is called "memlook," is that of a page, or a military guard. Eunuchs are employed as guardians of the women; but only in the houses of men of high rank, or of great wealth: on account of the important and confidential office which they fill, they are generally treated in public with especial consideration. I used to remark, in Cairo, that few persons saluted me with a more dignified and consequential air than these pitiable but self-conceited beings. Most of them are Abyssinians or Negroes. Indeed, the slaves in general take too much advantage of the countenance of their masters, especially when they belong to men in power. The master is bound to afford his slaves proper food and clothing, or to let them work for their own support, or to sell, give away, or liberate them. It is, however, considered disgraceful for him to sell a slave who has been long in his possession; and it seldom happens that a master emanc.i.p.ates a female slave, without marrying her to some man able to support her, or otherwise providing for her.

The Prophet strongly enjoined the duty of kindness to slaves. "Feed your memlooks," said he, "with food of that which ye eat, and clothe them with such clothing as ye wear; and command them not to do that which they are unable."[122]--These precepts are generally attended to, either entirely or in a great degree. Some other sayings of the Prophet on this subject well deserve to be mentioned; as the following:--"He who beats his slave without fault, or slaps him on the face, his atonement for this is freeing him."--"A man who behaves ill to his slave will not enter into paradise."--"Whoever is the cause of separation between mother and child, by selling or giving, G.o.d will separate him from his friends on the day of resurrection."--"When a slave wishes well to his master, and worships G.o.d well, for him are double rewards."[123]--It is related of 'Othman, "that he twisted the ear of a memlook belonging to him, on account of disobedience, and afterwards, repenting of it, ordered him to twist _his_ ear in like manner: but he would not. 'Othman urged him, and the memlook advanced, and began to wring it by little and little. He said to him, 'Wring it hard; for I cannot endure the punishment of the day of judgment [on account of this act].' The memlook answered, 'O my master, the day that thou fearest, I also fear.'"--"It is related also of Zeyn-el-'abideen, that he had a memlook who seized a sheep, and broke its leg; and he said to him, 'Why didst thou this?' He answered, 'To provoke thee to anger.' 'And I,' said he, 'will provoke to anger him who taught thee; and he is Iblees: go, and be free, for the sake of G.o.d.'"[124]--Many similar anecdotes might be added; but the general a.s.sertions of travellers in the East are more satisfactory evidence in favour of the humane conduct of most Muslims to their slaves.

It sometimes happens, though rarely, that free girls are sold as slaves.[125] A remarkable instance is related in the "Mir-at ez-Zeman."[126]--Fa?imeh, surnamed Ghareeb, a slave of the Khaleefeh El-Mo?ta?im, the son of Haroon, was a poetess, accomplished in singing and calligraphy, and extremely beautiful. Her mother was an orphan; and Ja?far, the famous Wezeer of Haroon Er-Rasheed, took her as his wife; but his father, Ya?ya, reproached him for marrying a woman whose father and mother were unknown, and he therefore removed her from his own residence to a neighbouring house, where he frequently visited her; and she bore him a daughter, the above-mentioned Ghareeb, and died. Ja?far committed her infant to the care of a Christian woman, to nurse; and, on the overthrow of his family, this woman sold her young charge as a slave. El-Emeen, the successor of Er-Rasheed, bought her of a man named Sumbul, but never paid her price; and when he was killed, she returned to her former master; but on the arrival of El-Ma-moon at Baghdad, she was described to him, and he compelled Sumbul to sell her to him. This Sumbul loved her so pa.s.sionately, that he died of grief at her loss. On the death of El-Ma-moon, his successor, El-Mo?ta?im, bought her for a hundred thousand dirhems, and emanc.i.p.ated her. The historian adds, that she composed several well-known airs and verses.

NOTE 14. An Arab who is married to his cousin generally calls her by this appellation rather than that of wife, as the tie of blood is, to him, in every respect, stronger than that of matrimony.

NOTE 15.--_On Magic._ The Arabs and other Mohammadans enjoy a remarkable advantage over _us_ in the composition of works of fiction: in the invention of incidents which _we_ should regard as absurd in the extreme, _they_ cannot be accused by their countrymen of exceeding the bounds of probability. A case similar to that here described was related to me as a fact, in Cairo. A person in that city, I was told, was suddenly surprised by the disappearance of his brother, and by finding, in his place, an a.s.s: but this animal increased his astonishment, and that of every person who beheld him, by manifesting a sagacity singularly opposed to the proverbial dulness of the generality of his species. Yet, strange as it may seem, it was not imagined that this brute was the lost man in a transformed state, till, one day, an old woman, seeing him, quickly covered her face, and declared the fact. She discovered this by her knowledge of magic; and, by her skill in this art, she agreed to restore the enchanted person to his proper shape.

Having collected a number of herbs, she boiled them in a large vessel; and when the decoction had cooled, she took the vessel, and, muttering a certain spell, threw its contents over the animal, endeavouring to do so in such a manner that every part of it should be wetted. Every part of it _was_ wetted, excepting one hind-foot; and, accordingly, it was restored to the original human form, with the exception of one foot, which remained like that of an a.s.s.

An implicit belief in magic is entertained by almost all Muslims; and he, among them, who denies its truth, they regard as a freethinker, or an infidel. Some are of opinion that it ceased on the mission of Mo?ammad; but these are comparatively few. Many of the most learned Muslims, to the present age, have deeply studied it; and a much greater number of persons of inferior education (particularly school-masters) have, more or less, devoted their time and talents to the pursuit of this knowledge. Recourse is had to it for the discovery of hidden treasures, for alchymical purposes, for the acquisition of the knowledge of futurity, to procure offspring, to obtain the affection of a beloved object, to effect cures, to guard against the influence of the evil eye, to afflict or kill an enemy or a rival, and to attain various other objects of desire.

There are two descriptions of magic; one is spiritual, and regarded by all but freethinkers as true; the other, natural, and denounced by the more religious and enlightened as deceptive.

I. Spiritual magic, which is termed "er-Roo?anee" (vulgo "Row?anee"), chiefly depends upon the virtues of certain names of G.o.d, and pa.s.sages from the ?ur-an, and the agency of Angels and Jinn, or Genii. It is of two kinds: High and Low ("'Ilwee" and "Suflee"), or Divine and Satanic ("Ra?manee," _i. e._ relating to "the Compa.s.sionate" [who is G.o.d], and "Shey?anee").

1. Divine magic is regarded as a sublime science, and is studied only by good men, and practised only for good purposes. Perfection in this branch of magic consists in the knowledge of "the most great name" of G.o.d ("el-Ism el A??am"); but this knowledge is imparted to none but the peculiar favourites of Heaven. By virtue of this name, which was engraved on his seal-ring, Suleyman (or Solomon) subjected to his dominion the Jinn and the birds and the winds, as mentioned in a former note. By p.r.o.nouncing it, his minister a?af, also, transported, in an instant, to the presence of his sovereign, in Jerusalem, the throne of the Queen of Sheba.[127] But this was a small miracle to effect by such means; for, by uttering this name, a man may even raise the dead. Other names of the Deity, commonly known, are believed to have particular efficacies when uttered or written; as also are the names of the Prophet; and Angels and good Jinn are said to be rendered subservient to the purposes of divine magic by means of certain invocations. Of such names and invocations, together with words unintelligible to the uninitiated in this science, pa.s.sages from the ?ur-an, mysterious combinations of numbers, and peculiar diagrams and figures, are chiefly composed written charms employed for good purposes. Enchantment, when used for benevolent purposes, is regarded by the vulgar as a branch of lawful or divine magic; but not so by the learned; and the same remark applies to the science of divination.

2. Satanic magic, as its name implies, is a science depending on the agency of the Devil and the inferior evil Jinn, whose services are obtained by means similar to those which propitiate, or render subservient, the good Jinn. It is condemned by the Prophet and all good Muslims, and only practised for bad purposes.--Enchantment, which is termed "es-Se?r," is almost universally acknowledged to be a branch of satanic magic; but some few persons a.s.sert (agreeably with several tales in this work), that it _may_ be, and by some _has_ been, studied with good intentions, and practised by the aid of good Jinn; consequently, that there is such a science as _good_ enchantment, which is to be regarded as a branch of _divine_ or _lawful_ magic. The metamorphoses are said to be generally effected by means of spells, or invocations to Jinn, accompanied by the sprinkling of water or dust, &c., on the object to be transformed. Persons are said to be enchanted in various ways: some, paralyzed, or even deprived of life; others, affected with irresistible pa.s.sion for certain objects; others, again, rendered demoniacs; and some, transformed into brutes, birds, &c. The evil eye is believed to enchant in a very powerful and distressing manner. This was acknowledged even by the Prophet.[128] Diseases and death are often attributed to its influence. Amulets, which are mostly written charms, of the kind above described, are worn by many Muslims with the view of counteracting, or preserving from, enchantment; and for the same purpose, many ridiculous ceremonies are practised.--Divination, which is termed "el-Kihaneh," is p.r.o.nounced, on the highest authority, to be a branch of satanic magic; though not believed to be so by all Muslims.

According to an a.s.sertion of the Prophet, what a fortune-teller says may sometimes be true; because one of the Jinn steals away the truth, and carries it to the magician's ear: for the Angels come down to the region next the earth (the lowest heaven), and mention the works that have been pre-ordained in heaven; and the Devils (or evil Jinn) listen to what the Angels say, and hear the orders predestined in heaven, and carry them to the fortune-tellers. It is on such occasions that shooting-stars are hurled at the Devils.[129] It is said that "the diviner obtains the services of the Shey?an by magic arts, and by names [invoked], and by the burning of perfumes, and he informs him of secret things: for the Devils, before the mission of the Apostle of G.o.d," it is added, "used to ascend to heaven, and hear words by stealth."[130] That the evil Jinn are believed still to ascend sufficiently near to the lowest heaven to hear the conversation of the Angels, and so to a.s.sist magicians, appears from the former quotation, and is a.s.serted by all Muslims. The discovery of hidden treasures, before alluded to, is one of the objects for which divination is most studied.--The mode of divination called "?arb el-Mendel" is by some supposed to be effected by the aid of evil Jinn; but the more enlightened of the Muslims regard it as a branch of natural magic. Some curious performances of this kind, by means of a fluid mirror of ink, have been described in my "Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians," and in No. 117 of the "Quarterly Review."[131]

There are certain modes of divination which cannot properly be cla.s.sed under the head of spiritual magic, but require a place between the account of this science and that of natural magic.--The most important of these branches of Kihaneh is Astrology, which is called "'Ilm en-Nujoom." This is studied by many Muslims in the present day; and its professors are often employed by the Arabs to determine a fortunate period for laying the foundation of a building, commencing a journey, &c.; but more frequently by the Persians and Turks. The Prophet p.r.o.nounced astrology to be a branch of magic.[132]--Another branch of Kihaneh is Geomancy, called "?arb er-Raml;" a mode of divination from certain marks made on sand (whence its appellation), or on paper; and said to be chiefly founded on astrology.--The science called "ez-Zijr,"

or "el-'Eyafeh," is a third branch of Kihaneh; being divination or auguration chiefly from the motions and positions, or postures, of birds, or of gazelles and other beasts of the chase. Thus, what was termed a "Sane?," that is, such an animal standing or pa.s.sing with its right side towards the spectator, was esteemed among the Arabs as of good omen; and a "Bare?," or an animal of this kind with its left side towards the spectator, was held as inauspicious.[133]--"El-?iyafeh,"

under which term are included Chiromancy and its kindred sciences, is a fourth branch of Kihaneh.--"Et-Tefa-ul," or the taking an omen, particularly a good one, from a name or words accidentally heard or seen, or chosen from a book, belongs to the same science. The taking a "fal," or omen, from the ?ur-an is generally held to be lawful.--Various trifling events are considered as ominous. For instance, a Sul?an quitting his palace with his troops, a standard happened to strike a "thureiya" (a cl.u.s.ter of lamps, so called from resembling the Pleiades), and broke them: he drew from this an evil omen, and would have relinquished the expedition; but one of his chief officers said to him, "O our lord, thy standards have reached the Pleiades;"--and, being relieved by this remark, he proceeded, and returned victorious.[134]--The interpretation of dreams, "Ta?beer el-Menamat,"

must also be cla.s.sed among the branches of this science. According to the Prophet, it is the only branch of divination worthy of dependance.

"Good dreams," said he, "are one of the parts of prophecy," and "nothing else of prophecy remains." "Good dreams are from G.o.d; and false dreams, from the Devil." "When any one of you has a bad dream, spit three times over your left shoulder, and seek protection with G.o.d from the Devil thrice; and turn from the side on which the dream was, to the other."[135] This rule is observed by many Muslims. Dreams are generally so fully relied upon by them as to be sometimes the means of deciding contested points in history and science. The sight, in a dream, of anything green or white, or of water, is considered auspicious; anything black or red, or fire, inauspicious.--The distinction of fortunate and unfortunate days should also here be mentioned. Thursday and Friday, especially the latter, are considered fortunate; Monday and Wednesday, doubtful; Sunday, Tuesday, and Sat.u.r.day, especially the last, unfortunate. It is said that there are seven evil days in every [lunar]