NOTE 7. "May it be favourable," or "----beneficial," is a compliment usually addressed to a person who has just been to the bath, and to a man who has just had his head shaved. The reply is, "May G.o.d bestow favours upon thee."

NOTE 8.--_On the Law respecting Murder and unintentional Homicide._ The ?ur-an ordains that murder shall be punished with death; or, rather, that the free shall die for the free, the slave for the slave, and a woman for a woman; or that the perpetrator of the crime shall pay, to the heirs of the person whom he has killed, if they will allow it, a fine, which is to be divided according to the laws of inheritance.[346]

It also ordains, that unintentional homicide shall be expiated by freeing a believer from slavery, and paying, to the family of the person killed, a fine, unless they remit it.[347] But these laws are amplified and explained by the same book and by the Imams.--A fine is not to be accepted for murder unless the crime has been attended by some palliating circ.u.mstance. This fine, the price of blood, is a hundred camels; or a thousand deenars (about 500_l._) from him who possesses gold; or, from him who possesses silver, twelve thousand dirhems[348]

(about 300_l._). This is for killing a free man; for a woman, half that sum; for a slave, his or her value, but that must fall short of the price of blood for the free. A person unable to free a believer must fast two months as in Rama?an. The accomplices of a murderer are liable to the punishment of death. By the Sunneh also, a man is obnoxious to capital punishment for the murder of a woman; and by the ?anafee law, for the murder of another man's slave. But he is exempted from this punishment who kills his own child or other descendant, or his own slave, or his son's slave, or a slave of whom he is part-owner: so also are his accomplices: and according to Esh-Shafe'ee, a Muslim, though a slave, is not to be put to death for killing an infidel, though the latter be free. A man who kills another in self-defence, or to defend his property from a robber, is exempt from all punishment. The price of blood is a debt inc.u.mbent on the family, tribe, or a.s.sociation, of which the homicide is a member. It is also inc.u.mbent on the inhabitants of an enclosed quarter, or the proprietor or proprietors of a field, in which the body of a person killed by an unknown hand is found; unless the person has been found killed in his own house.

Hence it appears, that the punishment with which the Wezeer El-Fa?l threatened his son is not to be regarded as a grave criminal act; especially when we consider the nature of the son's offence: for the slave was the property of the king, and it was not allowable to any other man even to see her without his permission. Many of the characters depicted in the present work would seem incongruous in the extreme, if judged according to European notions of justice and other moral qualities.

NOTE 9. "The two professions of the faith," "There is no deity but G.o.d,"

and "Mo?ammad is G.o.d's Apostle," are generally repeated by a dying Muslim.

NOTE 10. This is said to imply (as my sheykh has remarked in a marginal note) that El-Fa?l was a charitable person who bestowed pensions upon the professors of the ?ur-an and of science. There are many among the modern Muslims who do so, and numbers also who found and endow public schools.

NOTE 11.--_On the Washing, Shrouding, and Burial of the Dead._ The ceremonies attendant upon death and burial are nearly the same in the cases of men and women. The face or the head of the dying person is turned towards the direction of Mekkeh. When the spirit is departing, the eyes are closed; and then, or immediately after, the women of the house commence a loud lamentation, in which many of the females of the neighbourhood generally come to join. Hired female mourners are also usually employed; each of whom accompanies her exclamations of "Alas for him!" &c., by beating a tambourine. If possible, the corpse is buried on the day of the death; but when this cannot be done, the lamentation of the women is continued during the ensuing night; and a recitation of several chapters, or of the whole, of the ?ur-an is performed by one or more men hired for the purpose.

The washing consists, first, in the performance of the ordinary ablution which is preparatory to prayer, with the exception of the cleansing of the mouth and nose; and secondly, in an ablution of the whole body with warm water and soap, or with water in which some leaves of the lote-tree have been boiled. The jaw is bound up, the eyes are closed, and the nostrils &c., are stuffed with cotton; and the corpse is sprinkled with a mixture of water, pounded camphor, dried and pounded leaves of the lote-tree, and sometimes other dried and pulverized leaves, &c., and with rose-water. The ankles are bound together; and the hands placed upon the breast.

The grave-clothing of a poor man consists of a piece or two of cotton, or a kind of bag: but the corpse of a man of wealth is generally wrapped first in muslin; then, in cotton cloth of a thicker texture; next, in a piece of striped stuff of silk and cotton intermixed, or in a ?af?an (a long vest) of similar stuff, merely st.i.tched together; and over these is wrapped a Kashmeer shawl. The colours most approved for the grave-clothes are white and green. The body thus shrouded is placed in a bier, which is usually covered with a Kashmeer shawl, and borne on the shoulders of three or four men, generally friends of the deceased.

There are some slight differences in the funeral-ceremonies observed in different Arab countries; but a sufficient notion of them will be conveyed by briefly describing those which prevail in Cairo. The procession to the tomb is generally headed by a number of poor men, mostly blind, who, walking two and two, or three and three, together, chant, in a melancholy tone, the profession (or two professions) of the faith, mentioned above (in Note 9), or sometimes other words. They are usually followed by some male relations and friends of the deceased; and these, by a group of schoolboys, chanting in a higher tone, and one of them bearing a copy of the ?ur-an, or of one of its thirty sections, placed upon a kind of desk formed of palm-sticks, and covered with an embroidered kerchief. Then follows the bier, borne head-foremost.

Friends of the deceased relieve one another in the office of carrying it; and casual pa.s.sengers often take part in this service, which is esteemed highly meritorious. Behind the bier walk the female mourners, composing a numerous group, often more than a dozen; or, if of a wealthy family, they ride. Each of those who belong to the family of the deceased has a strip of cotton stuff or muslin, generally blue, bound round her head, over the head-veil, and carries a handkerchief, usually dyed blue (the colour of mourning), which she sometimes holds over her shoulders, and at other times twirls with both hands over her head or before her face, while she cries and shrieks almost incessantly; and the hired female mourners, accompanying the group, often celebrate the praises of the deceased in the manner described in the preceding tale, though this was forbidden by the Prophet.--The funeral-procession of a man of wealth is sometimes preceded by several camels, bearing bread and water to give to the poor at the tomb; and closed by the led horses of some of the attendants, and by a buffalo or other animal to be sacrificed at the tomb, where its flesh is distributed to the poor, to atone for some of the minor sins of the deceased.[349]

The bier used for conveying the corpse of a boy or a female has a cover of wood, over which a shawl is spread; and at the head is an upright piece of wood: upon the upper part of this, in the case of a boy, is fixed a turban, with several ornaments of female head-dress; and in the case of a female, it is similarly decked, but without the turban.

A short prayer is recited over the dead, either in a mosque or in a place particularly dedicated to this service in, or adjacent to, the burial-ground. The body is then conveyed, in the same manner as before, to the tomb. This is a hollow, oblong vault, one side of which faces the direction of Mekkeh, generally large enough to contain four or more bodies, and having an oblong monument of stone or brick constructed over it, with a stela at the head and foot. Upon the former of these two stelae (which is often inscribed with a text from the ?ur-an, and the name of the deceased, with the date of his death), a turban, cap, or other head-dress, is sometimes carved, shewing the rank or cla.s.s of the person or persons buried beneath; and in many cases, a cupola supported by four walls, or by columns, &c., is constructed over the smaller monument. The body is laid on its right side, or inclined by means of a few crude bricks, so that the face is turned towards Mekkeh; and a person is generally employed to dictate to the deceased the answers which he should give when he is examined by the two angels Munkar and Nekeer, whom I have mentioned in No. 21 of the Notes to the Introduction. If the funeral be that of a person of rank or wealth, the bread and water &c. before mentioned are then distributed to the poor.[350]

The princ.i.p.al ceremonies observed _after_ the funeral have been described in Note 15 to Chapter iv.

NOTE 12. "The lord (or chief) of the first and the last among mankind"

is one of the many appellations of honour given by the Muslims to their Prophet.

NOTE 13. My sheykh remarks, that this is said merely to excite men to generosity; for literally it is not true, as is shown by the memorable example of Ka?b the son of Mameh, who preferred giving the water with which he was provided to another, and in consequence himself died of thirst.

NOTE 14. We are not to understand that such a slave as Enees-el-Jelees was exposed to the public gaze in a market to which all persons indiscriminately were admitted (for this would be at variance with Eastern usages); but in a special mart to which none were allowed access but persons of wealth who expressed a desire to purchase.

NOTE 15.--_On Kissing the Ground, as a Mode of Obeisance._ This and several other pa.s.sages in the present work shew that we are often to understand the expression "kissing the ground before a person" as signifying "touching the ground, and then the lips and forehead, or turban, with the right hand;" and I believe this expression should _generally_ be so understood. When I wrote the fourteenth note to the Introduction, I inclined to a contrary opinion, chiefly from recollecting to have read the following translation of a pa.s.sage of El-Ma?reezee, by the learned De Sacy:--"Ce khalife [El-?akim] ordonna qu'a l'avenir on ne baiseroit plus la terre devant lui; que personne, en le saluant dans les marches publiques, ne baiseroit sa main ou son etrier, parce que cette coutume de se _prosterner_ devant une creature etoit une invention des Grecs."[351] But on referring to the original, I find that the words which he renders "cette coutume de se prosterner"

signify literally "the bending towards the ground." I suppose, therefore, that his deviating from the literal sense in one case was owing to his adhering to it in another; and not meeting with the proof which I had fancied to exist of his being right, I venture to differ from him in this instance, without fear of being suspected of arrogance, as the kind of obeisance above described is _often_ called "kissing the ground" both by the Arabs and the Persians. I should add that, except in the house, I do not remember to have ever seen the ground actually touched, but nearly so, in making this obeisance, which is still called "kissing the ground" when thus imperfectly performed.

NOTE 16. By this is meant, a place where mud was kneaded to be employed in building. The mortar generally used in the construction of Arab houses is composed of mud in the proportion of one-half, with a fourth part of lime, and the remaining part of the ashes of straw and rubbish.

NOTE 17. See the note immediately preceding.

NOTE 18. In Arabic, "bursh." This kind of mat, composed of palm-leaves (and sometimes, I believe, of the coa.r.s.e gra.s.s mentioned in the next note), is used by the poor to sit upon.

NOTE 19. This kind of gra.s.s, called in Arabic "?alfeh," and more properly "?alfa" (by botanists, poa multiflora, and poa cynosyrodes), and the "'a?ool" (or hedysarum alhagi), overspread spontaneously most of the alluvial tracts in Egypt which are above the reach of the inundation, and in consequence left uncultivated. The former is used in the manufacture of coa.r.s.e mats, and the latter serves as pasture for camels. The Wezeer, by taking the round mat and the two bundles of ?alfa, seems to indicate that he is degraded to a condition as low as that of a maker of coa.r.s.e mats. [The practice mentioned in the pa.s.sage to which this note refers is aptly ill.u.s.trated in El-Ma?reezee's Khi?a?.

In his description of the palaces of the Fa?imee Khaleefehs, he says, "There was in the Great Palace a place known by the name of the Sa?eefeh, where complainants of injustice used to station themselves; and it was a custom of the Khaleefeh to sit there every night, for those of the complainants of injustice who might come to him. When any one, therefore, was wronged, he would stand under the Sa?eefeh, and say, in a loud voice, 'There is no deity but G.o.d, Mo?ammad is the Apostle of G.o.d, 'Alee is the Friend (Welee) of G.o.d;' and the Khaleefeh would hear him, and command him to be brought to him, or he would intrust his case to the Wezeer," &c.--ED.]

NOTE 20. The boats used by the Arabs in the navigation of rivers are generally moored by means of a rope attached to a stake which is driven into the bank.

NOTE 21. By "children of the road" are meant "travellers."

NOTE 22. See Note 55 to Chapter iii.

NOTE 23. The word which I render elevated (mo'alla?ah) is applied to a structure raised upon columns or pillars, &c.

NOTE 24. The "gha?a" is a tree of a very inflammable nature, which, in burning, gives out a fierce heat. It grows chiefly in sandy tracts, and is described as resembling the "athl" (or tamarisk), but as being smaller than this tree.

NOTE 25.--_On Shaving the Head._ I do not know when the custom of shaving the head became general among the Arabs of the towns; but from a remark of Es-Suyoo?ee, I think it was not so common about the commencement of the tenth century of the Flight (that is, about the period which this work best ill.u.s.trates) as it is at present, when it is almost universal among all cla.s.ses; for in his time, its legality was doubted. He writes thus:--"The Iman El-Ghazalee hath said, 'There is no harm in it in the case of him whose object is cleanliness:' and the apparent sense of his words is, that it is improper in him who desireth to beautify himself for any worldly purpose, as is done by people of bad disposition."[352] It is added in a marginal note in the copy from which I translate this, "Persons differ respecting the shaving of the head.

The opinion generally prevailing is, that it is improper to him who wears not a turban, and allowable to him who does wear one, since he has a subst.i.tute:"--"that it is also lawful, unquestionably, in the case of any disease of the head:"--and "that the hanging of the rosary to the neck, and the shaving of the head without a legal necessity, are innovations,"--Haroon Er-Rasheed generally wore the hair of his head sufficiently long to reach below his ears; but shaved it when he performed the pilgrimage;[353] and many other Muslims in early times did the same. Those who shave the head generally leave a small tuft upon the crown; but most persons of the literary and religious professions, and many others, disapprove of this tuft.

NOTE 26. By the term "sheykhs" we are here to understand "persons of sanct.i.ty and of learning." See Note 9 to Chapter i.

NOTE 27. By "the shining moon" is meant "the beautiful cup-bearer, whose face is like the shining moon."

NOTE 28. The Muslims believe that a blessing is derived from witnessing and hearing the devout exercises, recitations, &c., of holy men.

NOTE 29. The "jubbeh" worn in Eastern countries, is a long outer vest, with sleeves which reach nearly to the wrist. It is now generally made of cloth, and is worn by most tradesmen and other persons of the middle and higher cla.s.ses. It differs somewhat in form in different countries.

NOTE 30. The "melwa?ah" is a garment of which I was unable to obtain a description until I inquired of my friend Mr. Salame, who informed me that it was the name of a large outer garment which used to be worn over the farajeeyeh. But I afterwards found it stated in one of the marginal notes to a later tale, that the term above mentioned is now p.r.o.nounced "melloo?ah," and is applied in the present day to an article of dress of cloth or other costly material; particularly to a jubbeh; but that it is also employed, in allusion to a jubbeh, &c., in a contemptuous sense, or, as I infer, ironically.

NOTE 31. See Note 41 to Chapter iv.

NOTE 32. The "litham" is a piece of drapery with which a Bedawee often covers the lower part of his face. It frequently prevents his being recognised by another Arab who might make him a victim of blood-revenge; and is a means of disguise seldom employed but by Arabs of the desert.

NOTE 33. The meaning is, that the act would speak for itself, and be long remembered; that the grave of the fisherman would be pointed out as that of one to whom the Khaleefeh had shewn signal favours.

NOTE 34. It is a common custom of Arabs of the lower orders to put the money which they receive, especially when it is the first of the day's gains, to the lips and forehead before depositing it in the pocket; and the same is sometimes done by persons of the middle cla.s.s.

NOTE 35. Literally, "twenty nu?fs." See Note 17 to Chapter iii.

NOTE 36. These are the ?a?ees of the four great sects, or persuasions, of the Sunnee Muslims. See Note 1 to the Introduction.

NOTE 37. The words "and the Wezeer took him away" are omitted in the Cairo edition.

NOTE 38. "?u?ey?" is the diminutive of "?i??," _vulgo_ "?u??," a "cat,"

and properly a "he-cat."

NOTE 39. The words which I translate "the place of blood" literally signify "the place of the stagnation of blood;" and are applied to the usual place of decapitation, because the blood is left there to soak into the ground.

NOTE 40. The recompense here alluded to is one to be received at the final retribution; not in the present life.

NOTE 41. This kind of "?ulleh" is a small, porous, earthen bottle, with a wide mouth. Some specimens of it are figured beneath.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

[344] See De Sacy, Chrestomathie Arabe, vol. ii. pp. 99 and 120, 2nd ed.

[345] In Arabic, "ma??aru kheyrin" (vulg., "ma??ar kheyr"); in Turkish, "neek ma??ar."