APPENDIX.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF SYRIA,

(_Kindly communicated to me by my friend_, _Professor Edward Forbes_.)

MY DEAR SIR,-It is much to be desired that a careful geological exploration of your interesting country should be undertaken by an able investigator. All that we know of the structure of Syria is fragmentary, and in great part unsatisfactory. Sufficient, however, is known to indicate the scientific importance of the region, and to hold out a promise of a rich harvest for the practical geologist who may undertake its description. The collection of fossils which I have myself seen from the district around Lebanon, suggested many enquiries that have not yet been answered, especially respecting the relations of the jura.s.sic and cretaceous rocks of that famous region. The following scanty notices of what is known about Syrian formations and their fossils, may serve to excite curiosity and to direct the traveller to fresh observations.

In the year 1833, a valuable memoir by M. Botta, Jun., was published by the Geological Society of France. It is ent.i.tled "Observations sur le Liban et l'Antiliban." He represents Mount Lebanon as composed of rocks belonging to the lower cretaceous series, resting upon green sands, and these in their turn reposing upon jura.s.sic strata. He states, that in the chain of the Lebanon there are three distinct formations. The uppermost is a limestone, very variable in character, both of appearance and hardness, and alternating with calcareous marls. The lower division of this formation is distinguished by the presence of beds and nodules of flint. Fossil sea-urchins occur in its middle, and fishes in its lower part. A second formation of variable thickness is sandy, very ferruginous, abounding in iron ores and lignites, and pa.s.sing above into a calcareous rock. The lowest formation is const.i.tuted of numerous beds of cavernous limestone. Besides these older rocks, M. Botta remarks upon the presence, all along the coast from Beyrout to Tripoli, of conglomerates or sandstones, quite unconformable to the calcareous rocks of the coast.

M. Botta takes particular notice of those localities in which remarkable fossils occur. The first is at the bottom of the basin in which Antoura is built. The stratum is confused marl, abounding in specimens of sea-urchins. These species are remarkable for their size and shape. He considers this bed as belonging to the jura.s.sic series. Corals are also found in it.

The second locality is near the convent of Bikeurby, where a stratum occurs containing numerous univalve sh.e.l.ls of the genus _Nerina_, which being harder than the rock containing them, stand up on its weathered surface.

The third locality is at Sach el Aalma, where at about 300 feet above the level of the sea occurs an impure limestone, often soft. In it fossil fishes are found in plenty. They are irregularly disposed in the rock.

The fossil fishes of Mount Lebanon have been the subject of frequent investigations, although the true geological position of the beds whence they are derived, has not yet been made out with certainty. Two memoirs have especially been devoted to descriptions of them, the one by M.

Heckel (1843), and the other by Professor Pictet, of Geneva (1853).

Professor Aga.s.siz also has written upon some of the Lebanon fishes, and Sir Philip Grey Egerton has described a very remarkable fossil, viz., the Cyclobatis OliG.o.dactylus, brought from Syria by Captain Graves, R.N., who kindly committed it to my care in 1845. Altogether no fewer than thirty-four fossil fishes from Mount Lebanon are now known and described.

As the works in which the accounts are contained are not likely to pa.s.s into the hands of travellers, it may be useful to give a list of some of the princ.i.p.al of these very interesting and beautiful fossils.

Of the family of perched fishes there occurs a species of _Beryx_, a genus of which certain fossil forms are found in the chalk, and a few living species in the Indian seas. The _Beryx Vexillifer_ is found in the hard limestones of Hakel.

Of the family of sparoid fishes, one or two species occur in the soft limestones of Sach el Aalma. The _Pagellus Libanicus_ is an example.

Of the family of Chromidae, three species of _Pycnosterinx_ occur in the soft limestones of Sach el Aalma, viz., _P. discoides_, _P. Heckelii_, and _P. Russegerii_.

Of the Squamipennes, a _Platax_ occurs in the hard limestones of Hakel.

Of the Cataphracti, a new genus called _Petalopteryx_ has been established by Pictet for a fish from Sach el Aalma. Of the Sphyrenoid fishes, a _Mesogaster_ occurs at the same locality. To the Halecoid fishes a great number of those of Lebanon belong; among them are the following:-

_Osmeroides Megapterus_, Sach el Aalma.

_Eurypholis_ (new genus of Pictet) _sulcidens_, from Hakel.

_Eurypholis Boisseri_, from the same locality.

_Eurypholis longiden_, from Sach el Aalma.

_Spaniodon_ (new genus of Pictet) _Blondelii_, from Sach el Aalma.

_Spaniodon elongatus_, Sach el Aalma.

_Clupea lata_, Sach el Aalma.

_Clupea macropthalma_, Hakel.

_Clupea sardiniodes_, Hakel.

_Clupea laticauda_, Hakel.

_Clupea minima_, Sach el Aalma.

_Clupea brevissima_, Hakel. This fish, originally described by M. de Blainville, appears to be very common in its locality.

Of the Esocidae, there is the fish called _Rhinellus furcatus_, which occurs at Sach el Aalma.

Of the Sclerodermi, several species of _Dircetis_ occur at Sach el Aalma.

A curious and anomalous fish, called _Coccodus armatus_, is found at Hakel.

Of Cartilaginous fishes, a _Spinax_ is found at Sach el Aalma.

The curious _Cyclobatis oliG.o.dactylus_ of Egerton belongs to the same division.

In the north of Syria, M. C. Gaillardot has observed several distinct stages of rocks belonging to the great Nummulitic formation, and therefore, according to the received geological cla.s.sification, members of the Eocene group of Tertiaries. The newest of these beds are stated to consist of compact white or grey limestones containing fossil corals, sea-urchins, and oysters. Under these is a white chalky limestone, alternating with green and grey soft marls and other limestones, almost entirely made up, according to Vicomte D'Archiac, of the _Nummulina intermedia_. In the white limestones of Ainzarka are found _Nummulina Raymondi_, _N. lvigata_, and _Alveolina subpyrenacia_. M. Gaillardot would distinguish the entire group of strata const.i.tuting the highest mountains of Syria by the name of the Libanian System. He appears, however, to have confounded strata of very different ages, tertiary rocks with cretaceous and jura.s.sic. In the true Lebanon region the mummulitic beds seem to be altogether wanting. It is possible that they may be present in the Antioch district, but this has not been clearly made out as yet. M. Russegger has shewn, contrary to the views of M. Gaillardot, that the region around Jerusalem is mainly of oolitic age, with occasional remains of cretaceous strata outlying here and there.

During the Armenian expedition to the sh.o.r.es of the Dead Sea, considerable collections of Syrian fossils appear to have been ama.s.sed.

These have been described by Mr. Conrad, and are figured in the report very recently published by Mr. Lynch. The cretaceous beds of Syria are therein referred in part, at least, to the age of the white chalk of Europe. The Jura.s.sic fossils are, for the most part, in the condition of casts. Species of _Nerina_ were noticed, and among European forms, the _Ostrea scapha_ of Roemer, and the _Ostrea virgata_ of Goldfuss. A very remarkable fossil is the _Ammonites Syriacus_, from the Lebanon region; it is a species apparently of the genus _Cerat.i.tes_, a group of cephalopods usually regarded as characteristic of strata of Tria.s.sic age, but in this instance possibly represented among cretaceous beds.

NOTES.

{3} Canticles iv. 1315.

{8} The supposed tomb of the prophet Jonah is distinctly visible from this spot.

{10} This favourite dish is something similar to forced-meat b.a.l.l.s, being made of dried boiled wheat, finely-chopped suet and meat, pepper, salt, and red chillies. The whole is mashed into a paste, then squeezed by the hand into a globular shape, and afterwards either boiled or baked.

{21a} In the houses of Mahomedans the texts are from the Koran.

{21b} Afterwards Pasha of Damascus, where he introduced many useful European inventions; he is now the Commander-in-Chief at Adrianople, beloved and esteemed by the people he governs.

{22} It is the fashion of Damascus, and generally in the East, for the lady of the house to first sip the coffee, and then hand it to the visitor as a mark of favour; and on my first arrival in London, I used to do the same, much to the astonishment of my English lady-friends.

{28} (Aliahey Ushruf ful salam.)

{48} In the East generally, however it is not regarded in the light of a theft to eat as much fruit from the fertile gardens as may satisfy the moderate wants of the pa.s.ser by.

{76} Spirit, made of raisins and aniseed distilled.

{78} Every marriage-guest brings a wax-taper, which he is to light.

{79} Sometimes the marriage ceremony is performed at home, sometimes in the church.