The results of the investigations of Way prove that the herbage of water-gra.s.s meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows--results perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men.

It is a somewhat general belief, that the aftermath, or second cutting, is less nutritious than the first cutting; but there appears to be no chemical difference between the two crops, provided they be saved under equally favorable conditions. According to Dr. Anderson, the composition of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows:--

Water 1684 Flesh-forming principles 1352 Non-nitrogenous matters 6443 Mineral matter (ash) 521 ------ 10000

I have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season--not less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully, and even before they flower. The results of the experiments of Stockhardt, h.e.l.lreigel, and Wolff, in relation to this point, are very interesting, and are well worthy of reproduction here.

RESULTS OF SToCKHARDT'S AND h.e.l.lREIGEL'S EXPERIMENTS.

--------------------------+-----------------------++-----------------------

Stem.

Leaves.

+-------+---------------

-------+---------------

Hay.

Hay.

Water +--------+------

Water +--------+------

in

Flesh-

in

Flesh-

Fresh

forming

Ash.

Fresh

forming

Ash.

Plant.

Matters.

Plant.

Matters.

+-------+--------+------

-------+--------+------ Clover cut on the

4th June, quite young

8280

1316

971

8350

2717

942 23rd " ready for cutting

8172

1272

900

8268

2769

900 9th July, beginning to

flower

8241

1240

612

7777

1583

1046 29th July, full flower

7830

928

463

7080

1920

958 21st August, ripe

6940

675

482

6570

1894

1233 --------------------------+-------+--------+------++-------+--------+------

RESULTS OF WOLFF'S EXPERIMENT.

-------------+------------------------------++-----------------------------

Red Clover.

Alsike Clover.

+--------------+---------------++---------------+-------------

Beginning

Full

Beginning

Full

to flower,

flower,

to flower,

flower,

11th June.

25th June.

23rd June.

29th June.

+--------------+---------------++-------+-------+------+------

Fresh.

Hay.

Fresh.

Hay.

Fresh.

Hay.

Fresh.

Hay.

+------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------

pct.

pct.

pct.

pct.

pct.

pct.

pct.

pct.

Water

8307

1666

7641

1066

8698

1666

8260

1666 Ash

143

704

167

590

112

717

145

694 Woody fibre

424

2087

888

3737

379

2426

511

2447 Nutritive

substances

1126

5543

1304

4607

811

5191

1084

5193 -------------+------+-------+-------+-------++-------+-------+------+------

During the operation of converting the gra.s.s--"natural" or "artificial"--into hay, there is more or less loss of nutritive matter sustained by fermentation, the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the wind, and other agencies. But this unavoidable loss is trivial when compared with the prodigious waste sustained, in Ireland at least, by allowing the hay to remain too long in c.o.c.ks in the field. "Within the last three or four years," says Mr. Baldwin, of the Glasnevin Albert Model Farm, "we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of the thirty-two counties of Ireland; and from careful consideration of the subject, and having in some instances used a tape-line and weighing-machine to a.s.sist our judgment, we have come to the conclusion that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of Ireland is permitted to rot in field-c.o.c.ks. The portion on the ground, as well as that on the outside of the c.o.c.ks, is too often only fit for manure. And the loss of aftermath, and of the subsequent year's crop (if hay or pasture), suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre. If we unite all these sources, the loss sustained annually in this country is something serious to contemplate. On an average, for all Ireland, it is not under 20 per cent., or a fifth of the actual value of the crop."

This is a startling statement; but I do not believe it to be an exaggeration of the actual state of things.

_Damaged Hay and Straw._--Damaged corn and potatoes, so much injured as to be unfit for human food, are generally given, and with apparently good results, to the inferior animals. The "meat manufacturing machines," as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now generally termed, are not very dainty in their choice of food; and vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in the mechanisms of oxen, sheep, and pigs.

Now, although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs, it is not so patent whether or not the natural food of stock, such as hay and straw in a diseased state, is proper food for those animals. This question is worthy of consideration. Firstly, I shall describe the nature of the diseases which most frequently affect fodder; these are, "mildew" and "mould."

These diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms of vegetable life, termed by the botanists _epiphytical fungi_. The mildew (_Puccinia graminis_) generally attacks the gra.s.ses when they are growing, and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured soils. In localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common occurrence, this pest often destroys whole crops. On the other hand, in light, sandy, and well-drained soils, and in warm and dry districts, the mildew is a rare visitant. The "blue mould" (_Aspergillis glaucus_) attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick, and without any regard to their origin--no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or the dryest, the warmest or the coldest of soils. The chief condition in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture. If the hay or straw be too green and succulent when put up, or if rain get at them in the rick, the mould is very likely to make its appearance, and the well-known odor termed _musty_ will speedily be developed.

Neither the mildew nor the mould can, strictly speaking, be regarded as parasites, such as, for example, the flax-dodder, which feeds upon the healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached. It appears to me that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay _first_, and then the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter.

Now, as these vegetables belong to a poisonous cla.s.s of fungi, it is more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the straw or hay into unwholesome, if not poisonous matter; and it is not unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food.

There is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder in this state; and the question arises, ought this odour to be destroyed or disguised, in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff?

The experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender is, that although cattle may be induced to eat it, they never thrive upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet. The reason of this is obvious. The nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is chiefly a.s.similated by the fungi. And as this const.i.tuent is the one which contributes to the formation of muscle, and is naturally extremely deficient in straw and hay--more particularly the former--it follows that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean flesh (muscle).

In the case of young stock, mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible, for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials--precisely those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder.

As large quant.i.ties of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present moment to be found in many farmsteads, and as they are unsaleable, and must therefore be made use of in some way at home, it is well to consider the best way to dispose of them. In the case of straw, the greater portion will be required for litter, and if the whole of the damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better. If, however, there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock, it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder, but always in a cooked state. The greater part, if not the whole, of the diseased nitrogenous part of the straw is soluble in warm water, so that if the fodder be well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw, but not so nutritious. The straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in flesh-forming, though not in fat-forming power, and this fact should be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are being weighed out. Beans, malt-combs, and linseed-cake are rich in muscle-forming principles, and are consequently suitable adjuncts to damaged fodder; but the latter should never const.i.tute the staple food, or be given unmixed with some sweet provender.

When the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes, after steaming, nearly as tasteless as sawdust. To this kind of stuff the addition of a small amount of some flavorous material is very useful. For damaged hay, Mr. Bowick recommends the following mixture:--

Fenugreek (powdered) 112 parts.

Pimento 4 "

Aniseed 4 "

Caraways 4 "

c.u.mmin 2 "

A pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid kinds of fodder.

Mr. Bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged hay, flavored with this compound, and that their health was not thereby injured in the slightest degree.

SECTION V.

ROOTS AND TUBERS.

The important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern systems of agriculture, has secured for them a large share of the attention of the chemist, so that our knowledge of their composition and relative nutritive value is very extensive. As compared with most other articles of food, the roots, as they are popularly called, of potatoes, turnips, mangels, carrots, and such like plants, contain a high proportion of water, and are not very nutritious; indeed, with the exception of the potato, none of them contain 20 per cent. of solid matter, and some not more than five per cent. They are, however, easily produced in great quant.i.ties, which compensates for their low nutritive value. I shall consider each of the more important roots separately.

_The Turnip._--There are numerous varieties of this plant, which differ from each other in the relative proportions and total amount of their const.i.tuents, and even in different individuals of the same variety there is considerable variation in composition; hence the difficulty which has been felt by those who have endeavored to a.s.sign to this plant its relative nutritive value. From the average results of a great number of experiments, conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house, it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the field. The Swedish turnips are the most valuable kind: they contain a higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties, and they are firmer and store better. The average composition of five varieties of turnips, as deduced from the results of the a.n.a.lyses of Anderson and Voelcker, is shown in the following table:--

a.n.a.lYSES OF TURNIPS.

----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+-------

Swedish

White

Aberdeen

Purpletop

Norfolk

Turnip.

Globe.

Yellows.

Yellows.

Bell.

+-------+-------+--------+---------+------- Water

89460

90430

90578

91200

92280 Alb.u.minous, or

flesh-forming substances

1443

1143

1802

1117

1737 Non-nitrogenous, or

fat-forming substances

(fat, gum, sugar, &c.)

5932

5457

4622

4436

2962 Woody fibre

2542

2342

2349

2607

2000 Mineral matter (ash)

0623

0628

0649

0640

1021 +-------+-------+--------+---------+-------

100000

100000

100000

100000

100000 ----------------------------+-------+-------+--------+---------+-------

The _Greystone Turnip_ is a variety which has only quite recently been introduced. It is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop, usually yielding returns from 30 to 50 per cent. greater than those obtained from other varieties of the turnip. The composition of the Greystone turnip appears to be inferior, so that probably it is not, after all, a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips.

DR. ANDERSON'S a.n.a.lYSIS OF THE GREYSTONE TURNIP.

No. 1. No. 2.

Grown on Clay. Grown on Sand.

Water 9384 9412 Oil 026 034 Soluble alb.u.minous matters 035 056 Insoluble ditto 020 018 Soluble respiratory matters 299 232 Insoluble ditto (chiefly fibre) 173 185 Ash 063 063 ------ ------ 10000 10000

It was at one time the fashion--not yet become quite obsolete--to regard the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive value of the bulb; but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by several late investigators, and more particularly by the results of one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by Mr.

Lawes. Many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient in nutritive power--partly from a deficiency in the other elements of nutrition--partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree of elaboration as to be incapable of a.s.similation by animals. The value of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the relative proportion of its const.i.tuents, but also, and to a very great extent, upon their easy a.s.similability. There is but little doubt that the nutritive matters contained in the Swedish turnip when the bulb is fresh are very crude. By storing, certain chemical changes take place in the bulb, which render it more nutritious and palatable. A large proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as pectin; but this substance, if the bulb be preserved for a couple of months, becomes in great part converted into sugar, which is one of the most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food. By storing, too, the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water, and become less bulky, which is unquestionably a desideratum. These facts suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the turnip, for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop, left for consumption in the field, ever, even under the most favorable circ.u.mstances, attains its perfect development. At the same time it must not be forgotten that turnips _fully matured_ in the field rather deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage.

Many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the specific gravity, or comparative weight of the bulb, and its nutritive value; others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be inferior in feeding qualities to a small one; whilst not a few maintain that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its feeding qualities. Dr. Anderson, who has specially investigated a portion of this subject, states that "the specific gravity of the whole turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value, the proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such results; that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity of, and the nitrogen compounds in, the bulb; and that such relation does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and the nitrogen compounds and solid const.i.tuents." Dr. Anderson allows, however, that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific gravity; which admission--coupled with the fact admitted by all experimenters that the heavy roots store best--lead me to adopt the opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the favorable indications of its nutritive value. With respect to size, I prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions; the monsters that win the prizes at our agricultural shows--and which, in general, are _forced_--are inferior in feeding qualities, are always _spongy_, and almost invariably rot when stored.

The composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of the soil on which it is grown, but also by that of the manure applied to it. The most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on Peruvian guano are watery, and do not keep well; but that with a mixture of Peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime, with phospho-guano, or with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano, the most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced.

Turnip-tops have been a.n.a.lysed by Voelcker, with the following results:--

ONE HUNDRED PARTS CONTAIN--

White. Swedish.

Water 91284 88367 Nitrogen compounds 2456 2087 Non-nitrogenous matters (gum, sugar, &c.) 0648 1612 Ditto, as woody fibre 4092 5638 Mineral matter 1520 2296 ------- ------- 100000 100000

These figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more valuable than their bulbs; but, in the absence of any feeding experiments made to determine the point, we believe they are less so, as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips is in too low a degree of elaboration to be a.s.similable. Their high proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter const.i.tute them, however, a very useful manure--nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs; this fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land.

_The Mangel-wurtzel_ is one of the most valuable of our green crops.

Its root is more nutritious than the turnip, occupying a position in the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip.

Mangels, when fresh, possess a somewhat acrid taste, and act as a laxative when given to stock; but after a few months' storing they become sweet and palatable, and their _scouring_ property completely disappears.

Although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food which can be given to cattle, yet it is stated on the best authority that sheep do not thrive upon it. Voelcker, who has investigated this subject, informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited quant.i.ty of hay and an unlimited quant.i.ty of mangels, did not, during a period of four months, increase in weight, whilst another lot of sheep supplied with a small quant.i.ty of hay, and Swedish turnips _ad libitum_ increased on an average 2-1/2 lbs. weekly. I believe the experience of the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of Dr. Voelcker's experiment.

The chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by Way and Ogston, Fromberg, Wolff, Anderson, and Voelcker. According to the last-named chemist, its average composition is as follows:--