It will be apparent from the foregoing figures that practically the whole of the pumping for a small sewerage works may be done by means of a windmill, but it is undesirable to rely entirely upon such a system, even if two mills are erected so that the plant will be in duplicate, because there is always the possibility, although it may be remote, of a lengthened period of calm, when the sewage would acc.u.mulate; and, further, the Local Government Board would not approve the scheme unless it included an engine, driven by gas, oil, or other mechanical power, for emergencies. In the case of water supply the difficulty may be overcome by providing large storage capacity, but this cannot be done for sewage without creating an intolerable nuisance. In the latter case the storage should not be less than twelve hours dry weather flow, nor more than twenty-four. With a well-designed mill, as has already been indicated, the wind will, for the greater part of the year, be sufficient to lift the whole of the sewage and storm-water, but, if it is allowed to do so, the standby engine will deteriorate for want of use to such an extent that when urgently needed it will not be effective. It is, therefore, desirable that the attendant should run the engine at least once in every three days to keep it in working order. If it can be conveniently arranged, it is a good plan for the attendant to run the engine for a few minutes to entirely empty the pump well about six o'clock each evening. The bulk of the day's sewage will then have been delivered, and can be disposed of when it is fresh, while at the same time the whole storage capacity is available for the night flow, and any rainfall which may occur, thus reducing the chances of the man being called up during the night. About 22 per cent, of the total daily dry weather flow of sewage is delivered between 7 p.m.

and 7 a.m.

The first cost of installing a small windmill is practically the same as for an equivalent gas or oil engine plant, so that the only advantage to be looked for will be in the maintenance, which in the case of a windmill is a very small matter, and the saving which may be obtained by the reduction of the amount of attendance necessary. Generally speaking, a mill 20 ft in diameter is the largest which should be used, as when this size is exceeded it will be found that the capital cost involved is incompatible with the value of the work done by the mill, as compared with that done by a modern internal combustion engine.

Mills smaller than 8 ft in diameter are rarely employed, and then only for small work, such as a 2 1/2 in pump and a 3-ft lift The efficiency of a windmill, measured by the number of square feet of annular sail area, decreases with the size of the mill, the 8 ft, 10 ft, and l2 ft mills being the most efficient sizes. When the diameter exceeds l2 ft, the efficiency rapidly falls off, because the peripheral velocity remains constant for any particular velocity or pressure of the wind, and as every foot increase in the diameter of the wheel makes an increase of over 3 ft in the length of the circ.u.mference, the greater the diameter the less the number of revolutions in any given time; and consequently the kinetic flywheel action which is so valuable in the smaller sizes is to a great extent lost in the larger mills.

Any type of pump can be used, but the greatest efficiency will be obtained by adopting a single acting pump with a short stroke, thus avoiding the liability, inherent in a long pump rod, to buckle under compression, and obviating the use of a large number of guides which absorb a large part of the power given out by the mill. Although some of the older mills in this country are of foreign origin, there are several British manufacturers turning out well-designed and strongly-built machines in large numbers. Fig. 19 represents the general appearance and Fig. 20 the details of the type of mill made by the well-known firm of Duke and Ockenden, of Ferry Wharf, Littlehampton, Suss.e.x. This firm has erected over 400 windmills, which, after the test of time, have proved thoroughly efficient. From Fig. 20 it will be seen that the power applied by the wheel is transmitted through spur and pinion gearing of 2 1/2 ratio to a crank shaft, the gear wheel having internal annular teeth of the involute type, giving a greater number of teeth always in contact than is the case with external gears. This minimises wear, which is an important matter, as it is difficult to properly lubricate these appliances, and they are exposed to and have to work in all sorts of weather.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. l9.--General View of Modern Windmill.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 20.--Details of Windmill Manufactured by Messrs. Duke and Ockenden, Littlehampton.]

It will be seen that the strain on the crank shaft is taken by a bent crank which disposes the load centrally on the casting, and avoids an overhanging crank disc, which has been an objectionable feature in some other types. The position of the crank shaft relative to the rocker pin holes is studied to give a slow upward motion to the rocker with a more rapid downward stroke, the difference in speed being most marked in the longest stroke, where it is most required.

In order to transmit the circular internal motion a vertical connecting rod in compression is used, which permits of a simple method of changing the length of stroke by merely altering the pin in the rocking lever, the result being that the pump rod travels in a vertical line.

The governing is entirely automatic. If the pressure on the wind wheel, which it will be seen is set off the centre line of the mill and tower, exceeds that found desirable--and this can be regulated by means of a spring on the fantail--the windmill automatically turns on the turn-table and presents an ellipse to the wind instead of a circular face, thus decreasing the area exposed to the wind gradually until the wheel reaches its final position, or is hauled out of gear, when the edges only are opposed to the full force of the wind. The whole weight of the mill is taken upon a ball-bearing turn-table to facilitate instant "hunting" of the mill to the wind to enable it to take advantage of all changes of direction. The pump rod in the windmill tower is provided with a swivel coupling, enabling the mill head to turn completely round without altering the position of the rod.

CHAPTER X.

THE DESIGN OF SEE OUTFALLS.

The detail design of a sea outfall will depend upon the level of the conduit with reference to present surface of the sh.o.r.e, whether the beach is being eroded or made up, and, if any part of the structure is to be constructed above the level of the sh.o.r.e, whether it is likely to be subject to serious attack by waves in times of heavy gales. If there is probability of the direction of currents being affected by the construction of a solid structure or of any serious scour being caused, the design must be prepared accordingly.

While there are examples of outfalls constructed of glazed stoneware socketed pipes surrounded with concrete, as shown in Fig. 21, cast iron pipes are used in the majority of cases.

There is considerable variation in the design of the joints for the latter cla.s.s of pipes, some of which are shown in Figs. 22, 23, and 24. Spigot and socket joints (Fig. 22), with lead run in, or even with rod lead or any of the patent forms caulked in cold, are unsuitable for use below high-water mark on account of the water which will most probably be found in the trench.

Pipes having plain turned and bored joints are liable to be displaced if exposed to the action of the waves, but if such joints are also f.l.a.n.g.ed, as Fig. 24, or provided with lugs, as Fig. 23, great rigidity is obtained when they are bolted up; in addition to which the joints are easily made watertight. When a f.l.a.n.g.e is formed all round the joint, it is necessary, in order that its thickness may be kept within reasonable limits, to provide bolts at frequent intervals. A gusset piece to stiffen the f.l.a.n.g.e should be formed between each hole and the next, and the bolt holes should be arranged so that when the pipes are laid there will not be a hole at the bottom on the vertical axis of the pipe, as when the pipes are laid in a trench below water level it is not only difficult to insert the bolt, but almost impracticable to tighten up the nut afterwards. The pipes should be laid so that the two lowest bolt holes are placed equidistant on each side of the centre line, as shown in the end views of Figs. Nos. 23 and 24.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 2l.-Stoneware Pipe and Concrete Sea Outfall.]

With lug pipes, fewer bolts are used, and the lugs are made specially strong to withstand the strain put upon them in bolting up the pipes. These pipes are easier and quicker to joint under water than are the f.l.a.n.g.ed pipes, so that their use is a distinct advantage when the hours of working are limited.

In some cases gun-metal bolts are used, as they resist the action of sea water better than steel, but they add considerably to the cost of the outfall sewer, and the princ.i.p.al advantage appears to be that they are possibly easier to remove than iron or steel ones would be if at any time it was required to take out any pipe which may have been accidentally broken. On the other hand, there is a liability of severe corrosion of the metal taking place by reason of galvanic action between the gun-metal and the iron, set up by the sea water in which they are immersed. If the pipes are not to be covered with concrete, and are thus exposed to the action of the sea water, particular care should be taken to see that the coating by Dr. Angus Smith's process is perfectly applied to them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 22.--Spigot and Socket Joint for Cast Iron Pipes.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 23.--Lug Joint for Cast Iron Pipes.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 24.--Turned, Board, and f.l.a.n.g.ed Joint for Cast Iron Pipes.]

Steel pipes are, on the whole, not so suitable as cast iron.

They are, of course, obtainable in long lengths and are easily jointed, but their lightness compared with cast iron pipes, which is their great advantage in transport, is a disadvantage in a sea outfall, where the weight of the structure adds to its stability. The extra length of steel pipes necessitates a greater extent of trench being excavated at one time, which must be well timbered to prevent the sides falling in On the other hand, cast iron pipes are more liable to fracture by heavy stones being thrown upon them by the waves, but this is a contingency which does not frequently occur in practice.

According to Trautwine, the cast iron for pipes to resist sea water should be close-grained, hard, white metal. In such metal the small quant.i.ty of contained carbon is chemically combined with the iron, but in the darker or mottled metals it is mechanically combined, and such iron soon becomes soft, like plumbago, under the influence of sea water. Hard white iron has been proved to resist sea water for forty years without deterioration, whether it is continually under water or alternately wet and dry.

Several types of sea outfalls are shown in Figs. 25 to 31.[1]

In the example shown in Fig. 25 a solid rock bed occurred a short distance below the sand, which was excavated so as to allow the outfall to be constructed on the rock. Anchor bolts with clevis heads were fixed into the rock, and then, after a portion of the concrete was laid, iron bands, pa.s.sing around the cast iron pipes, were fastened to the anchors. This construction would not be suitable below low-water mark. Fig.

26 represents the Aberdeen sea outfall, consisting of cast iron pipes 7 ft in diameter, which are embedded in a heavy concrete breakwater 24 ft in width, except at the extreme end, where it is 30 ft wide. The 4 in wrought iron rods are only used to the last few pipes, which were in 6 ft lengths instead of 9 ft, as were the remainder. Fig. 27 shows an inexpensive method of carrying small pipes, the slotted holes in the head of the pile allowing the pipes to be laid in a straight line, even if the pile is not driven quite true, and if the level of the latter is not correct it can be adjusted by inserting a packing piece between the cradle and the head.

Great Crosby outfall sewer into the Mersey is ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 28. The piles are of greenheart, and were driven to a solid foundation. The 1 3/4 in sheeting was driven to support the sides of the excavation, and was left in when the concrete was laid. Light steel rails were laid under the sewer, in continuous lengths, on steel sleepers and to 2 ft gauge. The invert blocks were of concrete, and the pipes were made of the same material, but were reinforced with steel ribs. The Waterloo (near Liverpool) sea outfall is shown in Fig. 31.

[Footnote 1: Plate V.]

Piling may be necessary either to support the pipes or to keep them secure in their proper position, but where there is a substratum of rock the pipes may be anch.o.r.ed, as shown in Figs.

25 and 26. The nature of the piling to be adopted will vary according to the character of the beach. Figs. 27, 29, 30, and 31 show various types. With steel piling and bearers, as shown in Fig. 29, it is generally difficult to drive the piles with such accuracy that the bearers may be easily bolted up through the holes provided in the piles, and, if the holes are not drilled in the piles until after they are driven to their final position, considerable time is occupied, and perhaps a tide lost in the attempt to drill them below water. There is also the difficulty of tightening up the bolts when the sewer is partly below the surface of the sh.o.r.e, as shown. In both the types shown in Figs. 29 and 30 it is essential that the piles and the bearers should abut closely against the pipes; otherwise the shock of the waves will cause the pipes to move and hammer against the framing, and thus lead to failure of the structure.

Piles similar to Fig. 31 can only be fixed in sand, as was the case at Waterloo, because they must be absolutely true to line and level, otherwise the pipes cannot be laid in the cradles.

The method of fixing these piles is described by Mr. Ben Howarth (Minutes of Proceedings of Inst.C.E., Vol. CLXXV.) as follows:--"The pile was slung vertically into position from a four-legged derrick, two legs of which were on each side of the trench; a small winch attached to one pair of the legs lifted and lowered the pile, through a block and tackle. When the pile was ready to be sunk, a 2 in iron pipe was let down the centre, and coupled to a force-pump by means of a hose; a jet of water was then forced down this pipe, driving the sand and silt away from below the pile. The pile was then rotated backwards and forwards about a quarter of a turn, by men pulling on the arms; the pile, of course, sank by its own weight, the water-jet driving the sand up through the hollow centre and into the trench, and it was always kept vertical by the sling from the derrick. As soon as the pile was down to its final level the ground was filled in round the arms, and in this running sand the pile became perfectly fast and immovable a few minutes after the sinking was completed. The whole process, from the first slinging of the pile to the final setting, did not take more than 20 or 25 minutes."

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLATE V.

ROCK BED. Fig. 26--ABERDEEN SEA OUTFALL. Fig. 27--SMALL GREAT CROSBY SEA OUTFALL. Fig. 29--CAST IRON PIPE ON STEEL CAST AND BEARERS. Fig. 31--WATERLOO (LIVERPOOL) SEA OUTFALL.]

(_To face page 80_.)

Screw piles may be used if the ground is suitable, but, if it is boulder clay or similar material, the best results will probably be obtained by employing rolled steel joists as piles.

CHAPTER XI.

THE ACTION OF SEA WATER ON CEMENT.

Questions are frequently raised in connection with sea-coast works as to whether any deleterious effect will result from using sea-water for mixing the concrete or from using sand and shingle off the beach; and, further, whether the concrete, after it is mixed, will withstand the action of the elements, exposed, as it will be, to air and sea-water, rain, hot sun, and frosts.

Some concrete structures have failed by decay of the material, princ.i.p.ally between high and low water mark, and in order to ascertain the probable causes and to learn the precautions which it is necessary to take, some elaborate experiments have been carried out.

To appreciate the chemical actions which may occur, it will be as well to examine a.n.a.lyses of sea-water and cement. The water of the Irish Channel is composed of

Sodium chloride.................... 2.6439 per cent.

Magnesium chloride................. 0.3150 " "

Magnesium sulphate................. 0.2066 " "

Calcium sulphate................... 0.1331 " "

Pota.s.sium chloride................. 0.0746 " "

Magnesium bromide.................. 0.0070 " "

Calcium carbonate.................. 0.0047 " "

Iron carbonate..................... 0.0005 " "

Magnesium nitrate.................. 0.0002 " "

Lithium chloride................... Traces.

Ammonium chloride.................. Traces.

Silica chloride.................... Traces.