Until proficiency is attained, two copies of the alphabet should be kept by each observer for reference, one for dispatching a message arranged in alphabetical order and the other far reading a message arranged as set out above. The white flag should be used when standing against a dark background, and the blue one when on the skyline or against a light background.

The conditions in tidal rivers vary somewhat from those occurring on the coast. As the crest of the tidal wave pa.s.ses the mouth of the river a branch wave is sent up the river. This wave has first to overcome the water flowing down the river, which is acting in opposition to it, and in so doing causes a banking up of the water to such a height that the inclination of the surface is reversed to an extent sufficient to cause a tidal current to run up the river. The momentum acquired by the water pa.s.sing up-stream carries it to a higher level towards the head of the river than at the mouth, and, similarly, in returning, the water flowing down the river gains sufficient impetus to scoop out the water at the mouth and form a low water below that in the sea adjoining. Owing to a flow of upland water down a river the ebb lasts longer than the flood tide by a period, increasing in length as the distance from the mouth of the river increases; and, similarly to the sea, the current may continue to run down a river after the tide has turned and the level of the water is rising. The momentum of the tide running up the centre of the river is in excess of that along the banks, so that the current changes near the sh.o.r.e before it does in the middle, and, as the sea water is of greater specific gravity than the fresh, weighing 64 lb per cubic foot against 62-1/2 lb, it flows up the bed of the river at the commencement of the tide, while the fresh water on the surface is running in the opposite direction. After a time the salt water becomes diffused in the fresh, so that the density of the water in a river decreases as the distance from the sea increases. The disposal of sewage discharged into a river is due primarily to the mixing action which is taking place; inasmuch as the tidal current which is the transporting agent rarely flows more rapidly than from two to four miles per hour, or, say, twelve to fifteen miles per tide. The extent to which the suspended matter is carried back again up stream when the current turns depends upon the quant.i.ty of upland water which has flowed into the upper tidal part of the river during the ebb tide, as this water occupies a certain amount of s.p.a.ce, according to the depth and width of the river, and thus prevents the sea water flowing back to the position it occupied on the previous tide, and carrying with it the matter in suspension. The permanent seaward movement of sewage discharged into the Thames at Barking when there is only a small quant.i.ty of upland water is at the rate of about one mile per day, taking thirty days to travel the thirty-one miles to the sea, while at the mouth of the river the rate does not exceed one- third of a mile per day.

CHAPTER IV.

SELECTION OF SITE FOR OUTFALL SEWER.

The selection of the site for the sea outfall sewer is a matter requiring a most careful consideration of the many factors bearing on the point, and the permanent success of any scheme of sewage disposal depends primarily upon the skill shown in this matter. The first step is to obtain a general idea of the tidal conditions, and to examine the Admiralty charts of the locality, which will show the general set of the main currents into which it is desirable the sewage should get as quickly as possible. The main currents may be at some considerable distance from the sh.o.r.e, especially if the town is situated in a bay, when the main current will probably be found running across the mouth of it from headland to headland. The sea outfall should not be in the vicinity of the bathing grounds, the pier, or parts of the sh.o.r.e where visitors mostly congregate; it should not be near oyster beds or lobster grounds. The prosperity--in fact, the very existence--of most seaside towns depends upon their capability of attracting visitors, whose susceptibilities must be studied before economic or engineering questions, and there are always sentimental objections to sewage works, however well designed and conducted they may be.

It is desirable that the sea outfall should be buried in the sh.o.r.e for the greater part of its length, not only on account of these sentimental feelings, but as a protection from the force of the waves, and so that it should not interfere with boating; and, further, where any part of the outfall between high and low water mark is above the sh.o.r.e, scouring of the beach will inevitably take place on each side of it. The extreme end of the outfall should be below low-water mark of equinoctial tides, as it is very objectionable to have sewage running across the beach from the pipe to the water, and if the foul matter is deposited at the edge of the water it will probably be brought inland by the rising tide. Several possible positions may present themselves for the sea outfall, and a few trial current observations should be made in these localities at various states of the tides and plotted on to a 1:2500 ordnance map. The results of these observations will probably reduce the choice of sites very considerably.

Levels should be taken of the existing subsidiary sewers in the town, or, if there are none, the proposed arrangement of internal sewers should be sketched out with a view to their discharging their contents at one or other of the points under consideration. It may be that the levels of the sewers are such that by the time they reach the sh.o.r.e they are below the level of low water, when, obviously, pumping or other methods of raising the sewage must be resorted to; if they are above low water, but below high water, the sewage could be stored during high water and run off at or near low water; or, if they are above high water, the sewage could run off continuously, or at any particular time that might be decided.

Observations of the currents should now be made from the selected points, giving special attention to those periods during which it is possible to discharge the sewage having regard to the levels of the sewers. These should be made with the greatest care and accuracy, as the final selection of the type of scheme to be adopted will depend very largely on the results obtained and the proper interpretation of them, by estimating, and mentally eliminating, any disturbing influences, such as wind, etc. Care must also be taken in noting the height of the tide and the relative positions of the sun, moon, and earth at the time of making the observations, and in estimating from such information the extent to which the tides and currents may vary at other times when those bodies are differently situated.

It is obvious that if the levels of the sewers and other circ.u.mstances are such that the sewage can safely be discharged at low water, and the works are to be constructed accordingly, it is most important to have accurate information as to the level of the highest low water which may occur in any ordinary circ.u.mstances. If the level of a single low water, given by a casual observation, is adopted without consideration of the governing conditions, it may easily be that the tide in question is a low one, that may not be repeated for several years, and the result would be that, instead of having a free outlet at low water, the pipe would generally be submerged, and its discharging capacity very greatly reduced.

The run of the currents will probably differ at each of the points under consideration, so that if one point were selected the best result would be obtained by discharging the sewage at high water and at another point at low water, whereas at a third point the results would show that to discharge there would not be satisfactory at any stage of the tide unless the sewage were first partially or even wholly purified. If these results are considered in conjunction with the levels of the sewers definite alternative schemes, each of which would work satisfactory may be evolved, and after settling them in rough outline, comparative approximate estimates should be prepared, when a final scheme may be decided upon which, while giving the most efficient result at the minimum cost, will not arouse sentimental objections to a greater extent than is inherent to all schemes of sewage disposal.

Having thus selected the exact position of the outfall, the current observations from that point should be completed, so that the engineer may be in a position to state definitely the course which would be taken by sewage if discharged under any conditions of time or tide. This information is not particularly wanted by the engineer, but the scheme will have to receive the sanction of the Local Government Board or of Parliament, and probably considerable opposition will be raised by interested parties, which must be met at all points and overcome. In addition to this, it may be possible, and necessary, when heavy rain occurs, to allow the diluted sewage to escape into the sea at any stage of the tide; and, while it is easy to contend that it will not then be more impure than storm water which is permitted to be discharged into inland streams during heavy rainfall, the aforesaid sentimentalists may conjure up many possibilities of serious results. As far as possible the records should indicate the course taken by floats starting from the outfall, at high water, and at each regular hour afterwards on the ebb tide, as well as at low water and every hour on the flood tide. It is not, however, by any means necessary that they should be taken in this or any particular order, because as the height of the tide varies each day an observation taken at high water one day is not directly comparable with one taken an hour after high water the next day, and while perhaps relatively the greatest amount of information can be gleaned from a series of observations taken at the same state of the tide, but on tides of differing heights, still, every observation tells its own story and serves a useful purpose.

Deep floats and surface floats should be used concurrently to show the effect of the wind, the direction and force of which should be noted. If it appears that with an on-sh.o.r.e wind floating particles would drift to the sh.o.r.e, screening will be necessary before the sewage is discharged. The floats should be followed as long as possible, but at least until the turn of the current--that is to say, a float put in at or near high water should be followed until the current has turned at or near low water, and one put in at low water should be followed until after high water. In all references to low water the height of the tide given is that of the preceding high water.

The time at which the current turns relative to high and low water at any place will be found to vary with the height of the tide, and all the information obtained on this point should be plotted on squared paper as shown on Fig. 10, which represents the result of observations taken near the estuary of a large river where the conditions would be somewhat different from those holding in the open sea. The vertical lines represent the time before high or low water at which the current turned, and the horizontal lines the height of the tide, but the data will, of course, vary in different localities.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Hours before turn of tide. FIG 10]

It will be noticed that certain of the points thus obtained can be joined up by a regular curve which can be utilised for ascertaining the probable time at which the current will turn on tides of height intermediate to those at which observations were actually taken. For instance, from the diagram given it can be seen that on a 20 ft tide the current will turn thirty minutes before the tide, or on a 15 ft tide the current will turn one hour before the tide. Some of the points lie at a considerable distance from the regular curve, showing that the currents on those occasions were affected by some disturbing influence which the observer will probably be able to explain by a reference to his notes, and therefore those particular observations must be used with caution.

The rate of travel of the currents varies in accordance with the time they have been running. Directly after the turn there is scarcely any movement, but the speed increases until it reaches a maximum about three hours later and then it decreases until the next turn, when dead water occurs again.

Those observations which were started at the turn of the current and continued through the whole tide should be plotted as shown in Fig. 11, which gives the curves relating to three different tides, but, provided a sufficiently large scale is adopted, there is no reason why curves relating to the whole range of the tides should not be plotted on one diagram. This chart shows the total distance that would be covered by a float according to the height of the tide; it also indicates the velocity of the current from time to time. It can be used in several ways, but as this necessitates the a.s.sumption that with tides of the same height the flow of the currents is absolutely identical along the coast in the vicinity of the outfall, the diagram should be checked as far as possible by any observations that may be taken at other states of tides of the same heights. Suppose we require to know how far a float will travel if started at two hours after high water on a 12 ft tide. From Fig. 10 we see that on a tide of this height the current turns two hours and a quarter before the tide; therefore two hours after high water will be four hours and a quarter after the turn of the current. If the float were started with the current, we see from Fig. 11 that it would have travelled three miles in four hours and a quarter; and subtracting this from four miles, which is its full travel on a whole tide, we see that it will only cover one mile in the two hours and a quarter remaining before the current turns to run back again.

Although sewage discharged into the sea rapidly becomes so diffused as to lose its ident.i.ty, still occasionally the extraneous substances in it, such as wooden matches, banana skins, etc., may be traced for a considerable distance; so that, as the sewage continues to be discharged into the sea moving past the outfall, there is formed what may be described as a body or column of water having possibilities of sewage contamination. If the time during which sewage is discharged is limited to two hours, and starts, say, at the turn of the current on a 12 ft tide, we see from Fig. 11 that the front of this body of water will have reached a point five-eighths of a mile away when the discharge ceases; so that there will be a virtual column of water of a total length of five-eighths of a mile, in which is contained all that remains of the noxious matters, travelling through the sea along the course of the current. We see, further, that at a distance of three miles away this column would only take thirty minutes to pa.s.s a given point. The extent of this column of water will vary considerably according to the tide and the time of discharge; for instance, on a 22 ft tide, if the discharge starts one hour after the turn of the current and continues for two hours, as in the previous example, it will form a column four miles long, whereas if it started two hours after the current, and continued for the same length of time, the column would be six miles and a half long, but the percentage of sewage in the water would be infinitesimal.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Hours after turn of current FIG. 11]

In some cases it may be essential that the sewage should be borne past a certain point before the current turns in order to ensure that it shall not be brought back on the return tide to the sh.o.r.e near the starting point. In other words, the sewage travelling along the line of a branch current must reach the junction on the line of the main current by a certain time in order to catch the connection. a.s.suming the period of discharge will be two hours, and that the point which it is necessary to clear is situated three miles and a half from the outfall, the permissible time to discharge the sewage according to the height of the tide can be obtained from Fig. 11. Taking the 22 ft tide first, it will be seen that if the float started with the current it would travel twelve miles in the tide; three and a half from twelve leaves eight and a half miles. A vertical line dropped from the intersection of the eight miles and a half line with the curve of the current gives the time two hours and a half before the end, or four hours after the start of the current at which the discharge of the sewage must cease at the outfall in order that the rear part of the column can reach the required point before the current turns. As on this tide high water is about fifteen minutes after the current, the latest time for the two hours of discharge must be from one hour and three-quarters to three hours and three-quarters after high water. Similarly with the 12 ft tide having a total travel of four miles: three and a half from four leaves half a mile, and a vertical line from the half-mile intersection gives one hour and three-quarters after the start of the current as the time for discharge to cease.

High water is two hours and a quarter after the current; therefore the latest time for the period of discharge would be from two hours and a half to half an hour before high water, but, as during the first quarter of an hour the movement of the current, though slight, would be in the opposite direction, it would be advisable to curtail the time of discharge, and say that it should be limited to between two hours and a quarter and half an hour before high water. It is obvious that if sewage is discharged about two hours after high water the current will be nearing its maximum speed, but it will only have about three hours to run before it turns; so that, although the sewage may be removed with the maximum rapidity from the vicinity of the sea outfall, it will not be carried to any very great distance, and, of course, the greater the distance it is carried the more it will be diffused. It must be remembered that the foregoing data are only applicable to the locality they relate to, although after obtaining the necessary information similar diagrams can be made and used for other places; but enough has been said to show that when it is necessary to utilise the full effect of the currents the sewage should be discharged at a varying time before high or low water, as the case may be, according to the height of the tide.

CHAPTER V.

VOLUME OF SEWAGE.

The total quant.i.ty of sewage to be dealt with per day can be ascertained by gauging the flow in those cases where the sewers are already constructed, but where the scheme is an entirely new one the quant.i.ty must be estimated. If there is a water supply system the amount of water consumed per day, after making due allowance for the quant.i.ty used for trade purposes and street watering, will be a useful guide. The average amount of water used per head per day for domestic purposes only may be taken as follows:--

DAILY WATER SUPPLY (Gallons per head per day.)

Dietetic purposes (cooking, drinking, &c.) 1 Cleansing purposes (washing house utensils, clothes, &c.) 6

If water-closets are in general use, add 3

If baths are in general use, add 5

Total 15

It therefore follows that the quant.i.ty of domestic sewage to be expected will vary from 7 to 15 gallons per head per day, according to the extent of the sanitary conveniences installed in the town; but with the advent of an up-to-date sewage scheme, probably accompanied by a proper water supply, a very large increase in the number of water-closets and baths may confidently be antic.i.p.ated, and it will rarely be advisable to provide for a less quant.i.ty of domestic sewage than 15 gallons per head per day for each of the resident inhabitants. The problem is complicated in sea coast towns by the large influx of visitors during certain short periods of the year, for whom the sewerage system must be sufficient, and yet it must not be so large compared with the requirements of the residential population that it cannot be kept in an efficient state during that part of the year when the visitors are absent. The visitors are of two types--the daily trippers and those who spend several days or weeks in the town. The daily tripper may not directly contribute much sewage to the sewers, but he does indirectly through those who cater for his wants. The resident visitor will spend most of the day out of doors, and therefore cause less than the average quant.i.ty of water to be used for house-cleansing purposes, in addition to which the bulk of the soiled linen will not be washed in the town. An allowance of 10 gallons per head per day for the resident visitor and 5 gallons per head per day for the trippers will usually be found a sufficient provision.

It is, of course, well known that the flow of sewage varies from day to day as well as from hour to hour, and while there is no necessity to consider the daily variation--calculations being based on the flow of the maximum day--the hourly variation plays a most important part where storage of the sewage for any length of time is an integral part of the scheme. There are many important factors governing this variation, and even if the most elaborate calculations are made they are liable to be upset at any time by the unexpected discharge of large quant.i.ties of trade wastes. With a small population the hourly fluctuation in the quant.i.ty of sewage flowing into the sewers is very great, but it reduces as the population increases, owing to the diversity of the occupations and habits of the inhabitants. In all cases where the residential portions of the district are straggling, and the outfall works are situated at a long distance from the centre of the town, the flow becomes steadier, and the inequalities are not so prominently marked at the outlet end of the sewer.

The rate of flow increases more or less gradually to the maximum about midday, and falls off in the afternoon in the same gradual manner. The following table, based on numerous gaugings, represents approximately the hourly variations in the dry weather flow of the sewage proper from populations numbering from 1,000 to 10,000, and is prepared after deducting all water which may be present in the sewers resulting from the infiltration of subsoil water through leaky joints in the pipes, and from defective water supply fittings as ascertained from the night gaugings. Larger towns have not been included in the table because the hourly rates of flow are generally complicated by the discharge of the trade wastes previously referred to, which must be the subject of special investigation in each case.

[TABLE NO. 4.

APPROXIMATE HOURLY VARIATION IN THE FLOW OF SEWAGE.

Percentage of Total Flow Pa.s.sing Off in each Hour.

-----------+------------------------------------------------ | Population.

Hour. +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ |1,000|2,000|3,000|4,000|5,000|6,000|8,000|10,000 -----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ Midnight | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.2 | 1.3 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.8 | 2.0 1.0 a.m. | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.8 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 2.0 " | nil | nil | nil | nil | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.5 3.0 " | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | 0.2 4.0 " | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil 5.0 " | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | nil | 0.2 6.0 " | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.3 | 0.5 | 0.6 | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.8 7.0 " | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1.0 | 1.5 | 1.6 | 1.7 | 2.0 | 2.5 8.0 " | 1.0 | 1.5 | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 3.5 | 4.0 | 5.0 9.0 " | 3.5 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.8 | 5.5 | 5.8 | 6.0 | 6.5 10.0 " | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.8 | 7.0 | 7.5 | 7.7 | 8.0 | 8.0 11.0 " |10.5 |11.0 |10.5 |10.0 | 9.6 | 9.3 | 9.0 | 8.8 Noon |11.0 |11.3 |10.8 |10.3 | 9.3 | 9.5 | 9.2 | 9.0 1.0 p.m. | 6.0 | 5.5 | 6.0 | 6.7 | 7.0 | 7.2 | 7.3 | 7.5 2.0 " | 7.0 | 7.3 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.2 | 6.0 3.0 " | 6.8 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.3 | 6.3 | 6.0 4.0 " | 7.5 | 7.5 | 7.3 | 7.0 | 6.7 | 6.5 | 6.2 | 6.7 5.0 " | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.5 | 6.3 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 6.0 | 5.8 6.0 " | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.7 | 4.8 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.2 7.0 " | 6.5 | 6.2 | 6.0 | 5.8 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 4.7 8.0 " | 6.2 | 6.0 | 5.8 | 5.5 | 5.5 | 5.3 | 5.0 | 4.8 9.0 " | 5.0 | 4.8 | 4.7 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.5 | 4.0 10.0 " | 4.8 | 4.6 | 4.2 | 4.0 | 3.8 | 3.5 | 3.0 | 3.0 11.0 " | 4.3 | 3.5 | 3.5 | 3.2 | 3.2 | 3.0 | 3.0 | 2.8 -----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ Total |100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0|100.0 -----------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------

a.n.a.lYSIS OF FLOW]

Percentage of total flow pa.s.sing off during period named.

---------------------+----------------------------------------------------------------+ | Population. | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ | 1,000 | 2,000 | 3,000 | 4,000 | 5,000 | 6,000 | 8,000 | 10,000 | ---------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+ 7.0 a.m. to 7.0 p.m | 77.3 | 78.8 | 78.6 | 78.7 | 78.5 | 78.8 | 78.7 | 75.2 | 7.0 p.m. to 7.0 a.m | 22.7 | 21.2 | 21.4 | 21.3 | 21.5 | 21.2 | 21.3 | 21.8 | Maximum 12 hrs. | 84.0 | 83.6 | 82.6 | 81.7 | 81.0 | 80.6 | 79.7 | 78.2 | " 10 " | 72.8 | 72.8 | 72.1 | 71.4 | 70.0 | 69.8 | 69.2 | 68.5 | " 9 " | 66.3 | 66.6 | 66.1 | 65.6 | 64.5 | 64.8 | 64.2 | 63.3 | " 8 " | 61.8 | 62.1 | 61.4 | 60.8 | 59.5 | 59.0 | 58.2 | 57.5 | " 6 " | 48.8 | 49.1 | 43.1 | 47.5 | 46.8 | 46.5 | 46.0 | 45.8 | " 3 " | 23.0 | 28.8 | 27.11| 27.3 | 26.8 | 26.5 | 26.2 | 25.8 | " 2 " | 21.5 | 22.3 | 21.3 | 20.3 | 19.3 | 18.5 | 18.2 | 17.3 | " 1 " | 11.0 | 11.3 | 10.8 | 10.3 | 9.8 | 9.5 | 9.2 | 9.0 | Minimum 9 " | 3.4 | 3.9 | 5.2 | 6.6 | 7.5 | 6.9 | 8.8 | 10.0 | " 10 " | 6.9 | 7.4 | 8.7 | 9.8 | 10.7 | 10.4 | 11.8 | 13.0 | ---------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+

The data in the foregoing table, so far as they relate to populations of one, five, and ten thousand respectively, are reproduced graphically in Fig. 12.

This table and diagram relate only to the flow of sewage--that is, water which is intentionally fouled; but unfortunately it is almost invariably found that the flow in the sewers is greater than is thus indicated, and due allowance must be made accordingly. The greater the amount of extra liquid flowing in the sewers as a permanent constant stream, the less marked will be the hourly variations; and in one set of gaugings which came under the writer's notice the quant.i.ty of extraneous liquid in the sewers was so greatly in excess of the ordinary sewage flow that, taken as a percentage of the total daily flow, the hourly variation was almost imperceptible.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 12 Hourly Variation in Flow of Sewage.]

Provision must be made in the scheme for the leakage from the water fittings, and for the subsoil water, which will inevitably find its way into the sewers. The quant.i.ty will vary very considerably, and is difficult of estimation. If the water is cheap, and the supply plentiful, the water authority may not seriously attempt to curtail the leakage; but in other cases it will be reduced to a minimum by frequent house to house inspection; some authorities going so far as to gratuitously fix new washers to taps when they are required. Theoretically, there should be no infiltration of subsoil water, as in nearly all modern sewerage schemes the pipes are tested and proved to be watertight before the trenches are filled in; but in practice this happy state is not obtainable. The pipes may not all be bedded as solidly as they should be, and when the pressure of the earth comes upon them settlement takes place and the joints are broken. Joints may also be broken by careless filling of trenches, or by men walking upon the pipes before they are sufficiently covered.

Some engineers specify that all sewers shall be tested and proved to be absolutely water-tight before they are "pa.s.sed"

and covered in, but make a proviso that if, after the completion of the works, the leakage into any section exceeds 1/2 cubic foot per minute per mile of sewer, that length shall be taken up and relaid. Even if the greatest vigilance is exercised to obtain water-tight sewers, the numerous house connections are each potential sources of leakage, and when the scheme is complete there may be a large quant.i.ty of infiltration water to be dealt with. Where there are existing systems of old sewers the quant.i.ty of infiltration water can be ascertained by gauging the night flow; and if it is proved to be excessive, a careful examination of the course of the sewers should be made with a view to locating the places where the greater part of the leakage occurs, and then to take such steps as may be practicable to reduce the quant.i.ty.

CHAPTER VI.