CHAPTER IX

THE GUNS THEY USE IN THE NAVY

Both the great English-speaking nations are immensely proud of their navies. They can, on occasion, produce soldiers by the million of the very highest and most efficient type, but they never feel quite that pride and patriotic fervour over their soldiers that they do over their ships of war and their sailors.

The guns, therefore, with which the ships are armed, always form a subject of great interest, especially those large ones which const.i.tute the armament of the Dreadnought battleships and battle-cruisers.

Let us first consider what is required in a naval gun, for it must be remembered that the naval and military weapons are different in some respects. Experience at the Dardanelles showed that even the guns of the _Queen Elizabeth_, the largest and most powerful then known, fresh from the finest factories, were not particularly successful against the Turkish forts. The Germans, too, set up what was probably a naval gun and occasionally dropped sh.e.l.ls into Dunkirk with it at a range of twenty miles or so, but without causing much harm, and the fact that they only did it occasionally and then abandoned it altogether seems to indicate that in their opinion they were not doing much good with it.

It must not be a.s.sumed from this that naval guns are bad guns or poor guns, however, but simply that they are made for a special purpose for which they are highly efficient, from which it follows almost as a natural consequence that they are somewhat less efficient when used for some other purpose. Their purpose is to pierce the hard steel armour with which warships are protected and then to explode in the enemy's interior, whereas in modern warfare the greatest military guns are chiefly required to blow a big hole in the ground or to shatter a block of concrete. In both cases the ultimate object is to carry a quant.i.ty of explosive into the enemy's territory and there explode it, but whereas the land gun has simply to do that and no more, the naval gun has to pierce thick armour-plate as well.

And just think what that means. Many large ships have their vital parts protected by armour-plates twelve inches thick. Moreover, the armour-plates are made of very special steel, the finest that can be invented for the purpose. Vast sums of money have been expended in experimenting to find out just the best sort of steel for resisting penetration by sh.e.l.ls. Some time ago I saw several pieces of armour-plate which had been used in one of these tests. They had been set up under conditions as nearly as possible the same as those obtaining on the side of a ship and then they had been fired at from varying distances, the effects of the various shots being carefully recorded. And that is only one experiment out of tens of thousands which have been tried again and again, while the steel manufacturers are always trying to improve and again improve the sh.e.l.l-resisting properties of their steel. Thus, we see, the presence of the steel armour which has to be perforated before the sh.e.l.l can do its work makes the task set before the naval gun somewhat different from that which confronts its military brother.

These considerations result in the naval gun needing to have as flat a trajectory as possible and its projectiles the highest possible speed.

Now trajectory, it may be useful to explain, is the technical term employed to denote the course of a projectile, which is always more or less curved.

Let us imagine that we see a gun, pointed in a perfectly horizontal direction, and let us also imagine that by some miracle we have got rid of the force of gravity and also that there is no air. Under those conditions the shot from the gun would go perfectly straight and with undiminished velocity for ever and ever. Then let us imagine that the air comes into being. The effect of that is to act as a brake which gradually slows the sh.e.l.l down until finally it stops it. Theoretically, perhaps, it would never quite stop it, but for all practical purposes it would.

Again, let us suppose that while the air is absent the force of gravity comes into play, what effect will that have? It will gradually pull the sh.e.l.l downwards out of its horizontal course, making it describe a beautiful curve.

But, someone may think, does not a rapidly-moving body remain to some extent unaffected by gravity? Not at all: it falls just the same and just as quickly as if it were falling straight down.

If our imaginary horizontal gun were set at a height of sixteen feet and a sh.e.l.l were just pushed out of it so that it fell straight down the sh.e.l.l would touch the ground in one second. If the ground were perfectly flat and the sh.e.l.l were fired so that it reached a point half a mile away _in one second_ it would strike the ground exactly half a mile away. You see, the horizontal motion due to the explosion in the gun and the downward motion due to gravity go on simultaneously and the two combined produce the curve.

To make this quite clear, let us imagine two guns precisely alike side by side and both pointed perfectly horizontally. From one the sh.e.l.l is just pushed out: from the other it is fired at the highest velocity attainable: both those sh.e.l.ls will fall sixteen feet or a shade more in one second, and if the ground were perfectly level both would strike the ground at the same moment although a great distance apart.

Clearly, then, the faster the sh.e.l.l is travelling the more nearly horizontally will it move, for it will have less time in which to fall, and the slower the more curved will be its path, from which we see that the air by reducing the velocity causes the curve to become steeper and steeper as the sh.e.l.l proceeds.

If, then, our gun is placed low down, as it must be on a ship, to get the longest range we must point it more or less upwards because otherwise the sh.e.l.l will fall into the water before it has reached its target. When we do that we complicate matters somewhat, for gravity tends to reduce the velocity while the sh.e.l.l is rising and to add to it again while it is falling. We need not go too deeply into that, however, so long as we realize that, whatever the conditions may be, the sh.e.l.l in actual use has to follow a curved course, first rising and then falling.

The really important part about a sh.e.l.l's journey is the end. So long as it hits it really does not matter what it does on the way, and if it misses it is equally immaterial. The reason why we need to bother about the first part of the trip is because upon it depends the final result.

Whatever the trajectory may be we see that the sh.e.l.l must necessarily arrive in a slanting direction. And the more steeply slanting that direction is _the less likely is the target to be hit_.

If the sh.e.l.l went straight it would only be necessary to point the gun in the right direction and the object would be hit no matter how far away it might be. The more curved the course is, the more likely the sh.e.l.l is to fall either too near or too far, in the one case dropping into the water, in the other pa.s.sing clear over the opposing ship.

Let us look at it another way. Suppose the vital parts of a ship rise 20 feet out of the water and the sh.e.l.l arrives at such an angle that it falls 20 feet in 100 yards: then, if the ship be within a certain zone 100 yards wide it will be hit in a vital spot. If it be nearer the sh.e.l.l will pa.s.s over, if it be further the sh.e.l.l will fall into the water.

That 100 yards is what is called the "danger zone." If the sh.e.l.l is falling less steeply, say, 20 feet in 200 yards, then the danger zone is increased to 200 yards and so on, which gives us the rule that the flatter the trajectory, or the more nearly straight the course of the sh.e.l.l the greater is the danger zone and the more likely is the enemy ship to be hit.

We have established two facts, therefore, first, that the trajectory must be as flat as possible and, second, that to make it flat the velocity must be high. We can also see another reason for high velocity, namely, to give penetrating power.

To obtain a high velocity the gun must be long, and consequently naval guns are always long, a fact which is very noticeable in the photographs of warships. The reason for this is quite obvious after a little thought. You could not throw a cricket ball very far if you could only move your hand through a distance of one foot. To get the best result you instinctively reach as far back as ever you can and then reach forward as far as you are able, so that the ball shall have as long a journey as possible in your hand. Perhaps you do not know it but all the time you are moving your hand with the ball in it you are putting energy into that ball, which energy carries it along after you have let go of it. And it is just the same with the sh.e.l.l in the gun. So long as it is in the gun energy is being added to it but as soon as it leaves the muzzle that ceases. After that it has to pursue its own way under the influence of the energy which has been imparted to it.

The powder which is employed as the propellant or driving power is of such a nature and so adjusted as to quant.i.ty that as far as possible it shall give a comparatively slow steady push rather than a sudden shock, so as to make full use of the gun's length, the expanding gases following up the sh.e.l.l as it goes forward and keeping a constant push upon it.

On the other hand, a gun can be too long, for no steel is infinitely strong and stiff, so that beyond a certain limit the muzzle of the gun would be likely to droop slightly of its own weight and so make the shooting inaccurate. The limit seems to be about 50 calibres or, in other words, fifty times the diameter of the bore.

For a considerable time the standard big gun of the British Navy was the 12-inch, that being the calibre or diameter of the bore. The famous _Dreadnought_ had guns of that calibre and so had her immediate successors.

The 12-inch gun of fifty calibres weighs 69 tons and fires a projectile weighing 850 lbs. which it hurls from its muzzle at a velocity of about 3000 feet per second.

More recently the size has grown to 13, 14 and even as great as 15 inches calibre, but we may for the moment take the 12-inch gun as typical of all these large guns and have a look at its construction.

It is made of a special kind of steel known as nickel-chrome gun steel, formed by adding certain proportions of the two rare metals nickel and chromium to the mixture of iron and carbon which we ordinarily call steel. The metal is made after the manner described in another chapter and is cast into the form of suitably-sized ingots which are afterwards squeezed in enormous hydraulic presses into the rough shape required.

Besides giving the metal the desired form this action has the effect of improving its quality. Since a gun is necessarily a tube it may be wondered why the steel is not cast straight away into that shape instead of into a solid block and the reason why that is not done is very interesting. It is found that any impurities in the metal--and it is impossible to make it without some impurities--collect in that part which cools last and obviously that part of a block which cools last is the centre. Thus the impurities gather together in the centre of the ma.s.s whence they are removed when that centre is cut away, whereas if the first casting were a tube they would collect in a part which would remain in the finished gun.

The ingot, then, is cast and pressed roughly to shape. Then it is put into a lathe where it is turned on the outside and a hole bored right through the centre.

But that is by no means all of the troubles through which this piece of steel has to pa.s.s. It undergoes a very stringent heat treatment, being alternately heated in a furnace to some precise temperature and then plunged into oil, whereby the exact degree of hardness required is attained.

Moreover, this is only one of the tubes which go to make up the gun, which is a composite structure of four tubes placed one over another with a layer of tightly wound wire as well.

First, there is the innermost tube, the whole length of the gun, then a second one outside that, usually made in two halves. Both are carefully made to fit, and then the outer is expanded by heat to enable it to be slidden over the inner one, after which on cooling it contracts and fits tightly. Outside this second tube is wound the wire, or more strictly speaking tape, for it is a quarter of an inch wide and a sixteenth thick. It is so strong that a single strand of it could sustain a ton and a half. It is carefully wound on; first several layers running the whole length of the gun and then extra layers where the greatest stresses come, that is to say, near the breech, for that has to withstand the initial shock of the explosion. Altogether about 130 miles of wire go on a single gun.

The advantages of this form of construction are many. For one thing, a wire or strip can be examined throughout its whole length and any defect is sure to be found, whereas in a solid piece of steel, no matter how carefully it may be made, there may lurk hidden defects. Moreover, if a solid tube develops a crack anywhere it is liable to spread, whereas a few strands of wire may be broken without in any way affecting the rest.

It has been found that even if a sh.e.l.l burst while inside one of these guns no harm is done to the men in the turret where it stands, a thing which cannot be said for guns composed entirely of tubes, so that the merit rests with the wire. A third advantage is that the wire can be wound on to the tube beneath it at precisely that tension which is calculated to give the best result, whereas in shrinking one tube on to another this cannot always be attained.

Over the wire there come two more tubes not running the whole length but meeting and overlapping somewhat near the middle, so that at one point there are actually four concentric tubes besides the wire.

At the rear end a kind of cap called the breech-piece covers over the ends of all the tubes, itself having a central hole into which fits the breech-block, one of the triumphs of modern engineering, of which more in a moment.

While we have in mind the wire-wound form of construction it is interesting to note that something similar but in a crude form was practised sixty years or more ago. The guns of that era were some of them even of cast iron while the more refined consisted of a steel tube strengthened with coils of wrought iron. This iron was first rolled into flat bars, then it was made hot, and wound on spirally round an iron bar the same size as the tube. A little hammering converted this spiral into a tube which was then fitted round the steel tube. Thus, although very different there is still a distinct resemblance between this old method and the up-to-date wire-wound weapon.

The manufacture of guns, it may be remarked, owes more to one man than to any other, namely, Mons. Gustave Canet, a French engineer who, having fought in the Franco-German War, decided to devote his engineering talents to developing the artillery of his native land. He spent many years in England but later established works at Havre for the manufacture of guns upon improved methods, finally merging his interests into those of the great French armament firm of Schneider of Creusot.

By French and English artillerists at all events the name of Canet is regarded with reverence.

But to get back to our naval gun. It will be clear that operations such as have been described, involving the handling of great tubes fifty feet or more in length, heating them as required, dipping them in oil while hot and so on, can only be carried out at works specially designed for the purpose.

The furnaces where the tubes are heated are well-like formations in the ground, deep enough to take the tube vertically. To lift them in and out there have to be tall travelling cranes capable of catching the tube by its upper end and lifting it right out of the furnace so that its lower end clears the ground. To accomplish this with a little to spare the cranes need to be seventy feet or so high.

Then there are deep pits full of oil so that a tube can be heated in a furnace, drawn out by a crane and quickly dropped into the adjacent oil bath. Likewise there have to be pits of a third kind wherein a cold tube can be set up while a hot one is dropped over it for the purpose of shrinking the latter on.

Then, of course, there have to be lathes of gigantic dimensions capable of taking a length of nearly sixty feet and of swinging an object weighing anything up to fifty tons. But of those machines we can only pause to make mention, for we must pa.s.s on to the breech-block, in some ways the most interesting part of the gun.

When it was first suggested to leave the back end of the gun open so that the powder and projectiles could be put in that way instead of through the muzzle, people at once foresaw how much would depend upon the arrangements for stopping up the hole while the gun was fired. For, of course, the force of the explosion is exerted equally in all directions, backward just as much as forward, so that unless very securely fixed the stopper closing the breech would be liable to become a projectile travelling in the wrong direction. To fix such a thing securely enough to avoid accidents would surely take up too much time and so largely neutralize any advantage arising from its use. These fears were, indeed, to some extent justified by accidents which actually occurred with the early examples of breech-loading guns, and for that reason our own authorities for a time looked askance at breech-loaders.

Now let us take a look at the breech-block of the 12-inch naval gun of to-day, which never blows out, not even when 350 lbs. of cordite go off just the other side of it. The explosion hurls an 850-pound sh.e.l.l at the rate of 8000 feet per second but it never stirs the breech-block. Yet it can be opened and closed so quickly, including the necessary fastening-up after closing, that shots can be fired from the gun at the rate of one every fifteen seconds.

The breech-block partakes of the nature of a plug and also of a door. It swings upon hinges like the latter but its shape more resembles the former. If we want to make such a thing very secure we usually make it in the form of a screw with many threads, but that entails turning it round many times and that takes time. Given plenty of time to screw the breech-block into its place and there would never have been any anxiety as to the possibility of its blowing out, but there is not time. The problem, therefore, was to get the strength of a screw combined with quickness of action.

This dilemma is avoided in the following simple manner. The breech-block is given a screw thread on its exterior surface, and the hole in the breech-piece is given a similar screw-thread on its inner surface, just as if the one were to be laboriously screwed into the other after the manner of an ordinary screw in machinery. Then four grooves are cut right across the threads on the block and similarly on the breech-piece, so that at four different places there is no thread left. In other words, instead of the thread running round and round continuously, each turn is divided up into four sections with sections of plain unthreaded metal in between. Thus in a certain position the block can be pushed into the hole without any threads engaging at all, for each strip of threaded block pa.s.ses over an unthreaded strip in the hole and vice versa, in other words, the threads on the one part miss those on the other part. Yet an eighth of a turn serves to make all the threads engage and the thing is held almost as securely as if it were just an ordinary screw with threads its whole length.

The block is carried upon a hinged arm so that although it can be turned in this manner it can also be swung back freely when necessary.

Combined with the breech-block is a pneumatic contrivance which blows a powerful jet of air through the gun every time the breech is opened, thereby cleaning away the effects of the last explosion.