[19] Philosophical Transactions, 1809.

CHAPTER VII.

IN-AND-IN BREEDING.

It has long been a disputed point whether the system of breeding _in-and-in_ or the opposite one of frequent crossing has the greater tendency to maintain or improve the character of stock. The advocates of both systems are earnest and confident of being in the right. The truth probably is, as in some other similar disputes, that both are right and both wrong--to a certain extent, or within certain limits.

The term _in-and-in_ is often very loosely used and is variously understood; some, and among these several of the best writers, confine the phrase to the coupling of those of exactly the same blood, i.e.

brothers and sisters; while others include in it breeding from parents and offspring, and others still employ the term to embrace those of more distant relationship. For the latter, the term breeding in, or close breeding, is deemed more fitting.

The prevalent opinion is decidedly against the practice of breeding from any near relationships; it being usually found that degeneracy follows, and often to a serious degree; but it is not proved that this degeneracy, although very common and even usual, is yet a necessary consequence. That ill effects follow in a majority of cases is not to be doubted, but this is easily and sufficiently accounted for upon other grounds. In a state of nature animals of near affinities interbreed without injurious results, and it is found by experience that where domesticated animals are of a pure race, or of a distinct, well defined and pure breed, the coupling of those of near affinities is not so often followed by injurious effects as when they are crosses, or of mixed or mongrel origin, like the great majority of the cattle in the country at large. In the latter case breeding in-and-in is _usually_ found to result in decided and rapid deterioration. We should consider also that few animals in a state of domestication are wholly free from hereditary defects and diseases, and that these are propagated all the more readily and surely when possessed by both parents, and that those nearly related are more likely than others, to possess similar qualities and tendencies.

If such is to be regarded as the true explanation, it follows that the same method would be also efficacious in perpetuating and confirming good qualities. Such is the fact; and it is well known that nearly all who have achieved eminence as breeders, have availed themselves freely of its benefits. Bakewell, the Messrs. Colling, Mr. Mason, Mr.

Bates and others, all practiced it. Mr. Bates' rule was, "breed in-and-in from a bad stock and you cause ruin and devastation, they must always be changing to keep even moderately in caste; but _if a good stock_ be selected, you may breed in-and-in as much as you please."[20] Bakewell originated his famous sheep by crossing from the best he could gather from far or near; but when he had obtained such as suited him, he bred exclusively from within his own. As in all breeding from crosses, it was needful to throw out as weeds, a large proportion of the progeny, but by rigidly doing so, and saving none to breed from but such as became more and more firmly possessed of the forms and qualities desired, the weeds gradually became fewer, until at length he fully established the breed; and he continued it, and sustained its high reputation during his life by in-breeding _connected with proper selections for coupling_. After his death, others, not possessing his tact and judgment in making selections, were less fortunate, and in some hands the breed degenerated seriously, insomuch that it was humorously remarked, "there was nothing but a little tallow left." In others it has been maintained by the same method. Mr. Valentine Barford of Foscote, has the pedigree of his Leicester sheep since the day of Bakewell, in 1783, and since 1810, he has bred entirely from his own flock, sire and dam, without an inter-change of male or female from any other flock. He observes "that his flock being bred from the nearest affinities--commonly called in-and-in breeding--has not experienced any of the ill effects ascribed to the practice." W.C. Spooner, V.S., speaking of Mr.

Barford's sheep says, "His flock is remarkably healthy and his rams successful, but his sheep are small."

Mr. Charles Colling, after he procured the famous bull Hubback, selected cows most likely to develop his special excellencies, and from the progeny of these he bred very closely. From that day to this, the Short-horns as a general thing, have been very closely bred,[21]

and the practice has been carried so far, the selections not always being the most judicious possible, as to result in many cases in delicacy of const.i.tution, and in some where connected with pampering, in sterility.[22]

Col. Jaques, of the Ten Hills Farm near Boston, imported a pair of Bremen geese in 1822. They were bred together till 1830, when the gander was accidentally killed. Since then the goose bred with her offspring till she was killed by an attack of dogs in 1852. Great numbers were bred during this time, and of course there was much of the closest breeding, yet there was no deterioration, and in fact some of the later ones were larger and better than the first pair.

The same gentleman also obtained a pair of wild geese from Canada in 1818, which with their progeny were bred from without change until destroyed by dogs with the above named in 1852. They continued perfect as at first.

Among gregarious ruminating animals in a state of nature, all who a.s.sociate in a herd acknowledge a chieftain, or head, who maintains his position by virtue of physical health, strength and general superiority. He not only directs all their movements but is literally the father of the herd. When a stronger than he comes, the post of chieftain and sire is yielded, but in all probability his successor is one of his own sons, who in turn begets offspring by his sisters. The progeny inheriting full health, strength and development, the herd continues in full power and vigor,[23] and does not degenerate as often happens when man a.s.sumes to make the selections, and chooses according to fancy or convenience. The continuance of health, strength and perfect physical development is believed to depend on the _wisdom of the selection, upon the presence of the desirable hereditary qualities, and the absence of injurious ones_, and not upon relationship whether near or remote.

It has fallen within the observation of most persons that in the human race frequent intermarriages in the same family for successive generations often tend to degeneracy of both mind and body; size and vigor diminishing, and const.i.tutional defects and diseases being perpetuated and aggravated; but neither in this case is the result believed to be a necessary and inevitable consequence. Else how could it be, that Infinite Wisdom, whose operations are ever in accordance with the laws of his own inst.i.tution, in originating a "peculiar people," chosen to be the depositories of intellectual and physical power, wealth and influence, and who, in spite of oppression without parallel in the world's history, have ever maintained the possession of a goodly share of all these,--would have allowed their first progenitor, Abraham, to marry his near kinswoman Sarah, a half sister, niece or cousin, and Isaac their son to wed his first cousin Rebecca, and Jacob who sprang from that union, to marry first cousins, and their offspring for long generations to intermarry within their own people and tribes alone? At a later period, marriages within certain degrees of consanguinity were forbidden by Divine authority, but not until the peculiar race was fully established, and so far multiplied, as to allow departure from close breeding without change of characteristics, and not improbably the prohibition was even then based more upon moral reasons, or upon man's ignorance or recklessness regarding selection, than upon physical law.

Such laws exist among us at present, and it is well they do, inasmuch as for the reasons already given there is greater probability of degeneracy by means of such connections than among those not so related by blood. But they present an instance of the imperfection of human laws, it being impossible for any legal enactments to prevent wholly the evil thus sought to be avoided. It would be better far, if such a degree of physiological knowledge existed and such caution was exercised among the community generally, as would prevent the contraction of any marriages, where, from the structure and endowments of the parties, debility, deformity, insanity or idiocy must inevitably be the portion of their offspring whether they are more nearly related than through their common ancestor, Noah, or not.

If we adopt Mr. Walker's views, it is easy to see how parents of near affinities may produce offspring perfect and healthy, or the reverse.

He holds, that to secure satisfactory results from any union, there should be some inherent, const.i.tutional, or fundamental difference; some such difference as we often see in the human family to be the ground of preference and attachment; as men generally prefer women of a feminine rather than a masculine type. All desire, in a mate, properties and qualities not possessed by themselves. Now a.s.suming as Mr. Walker holds, that organization is transmitted by halves, and that, in animals of the same variety, either parent may give either series of organs, we can see in the case of brother and sister that if one receives the locomotive system of the father and the nutritive system of the mother, and the other the locomotive system of the mother and the nutritive system of the father, they are essentially unlike, there is scarcely any similarity between them, although, as we say, of precisely the same blood; and their progeny if coupled might show no deterioration; whereas, if both have the same series of organs from the same parents, they would be essentially the same, a sort of quasi ident.i.ty would exist between them, and they are utterly unfit to be mated. There might be impotency, or barrenness, or the progeny, if any, would be decidedly inferior to the parents; and the same applies, more or less, to other relatives descended from a common ancestry, but more distant than brother and sister. Mr. Walker also holds that where the parents are not only of the same variety but of the same family in the narrowest sense, the female always gives the locomotive system and the father the nutritive; in which case the progeny is necessarily inferior to the parents.

A careful consideration of the subject brings us to the following conclusions, viz:

That in general practice, with the grades and mixed animals common in the country, _close breeding should be scrupulously avoided_ as highly detrimental. It is better _always_ to avoid breeding from near affinities whenever stock-getters of the same breed and of equal merit can be obtained which are not related. Yet, where this is not possible, or where there is some desirable and clearly defined purpose in view, as the fixing and perpetuating of some valuable quality in a particular animal not common to the breed, and the breeder possesses the knowledge and skill needful to accomplish his purpose, and the animals are perfect in health and development, close breeding may be practiced with advantage.

FOOTNOTES:

[20] Mr. Bates, although eminent as a breeder, was not infallible in making his selections, and after long continued close breeding, he was compelled to go out of his own herd to procure breeding animals.

[21] Probably few who have not critically examined the facts regarding close breeding in the improved Short-horns are aware of the extent to which it has been carried. On the 28th of March, 1860, at a sale of Short-horns at Milcote, near Stratford upon Avon (England) thirty-one descendants of a cow called "Charmer," bred of Mr. Colling's purest blood, and praised in the advertis.e.m.e.nt as "capital milkers and very prolific, _not having been pampered_," sold for 2,140, averaging about $350 each, and many of them were calves. The stock was also praised as "offering to the public as much of the pure blood of 'Favorite' as could be found in any herd." With reference to this sale, which also comprised other stock, the Agricultural Gazette, published a few days previous, had some remarks from which the following is extracted:

"It is unquestionable that the ability of a cow or bull to transmit the merit either may possess does in a great degree depend upon its having been inherited by them through a long line of ancestry. Nothing is more remarkable than the way in which the earlier improvers of the Short-horn breed carried out their belief in this. They were indeed driven by the comparative fewness of well bred animals to a repeated use of the same sire on successive generations of his own begetting, while breeders now-a-days have the advantage of fifty different strains and families from which to choose the materials of their herd, but whether it were necessity or choice it is certain that the pedigree of no pure bred Short-horn can be traced without very soon reaching many an ill.u.s.tration of the way in which 'breeding in-and-in' has influenced its character, deepened it, made it permanent, so that it is handed down unimpaired and even strengthened in the hands of the judicious breeder. What an extraordinary influence has thus been exerted by a single bull on the fortunes of the Short-horn breed! There is hardly a single choice pure-bred Short-horn that is not descended from 'Favorite' (252) and not only descended in a single line--but descended in fifty different lines. Take any single animal, and this bull shall occur in a dozen of its preceding generations and repeatedly up to a hundred times! in the animals of some of the more distant generations.

His influence is thus so paramount in the breed that one fancies he has created it and that the present character of the whole breed is due the 'accidental' appearance of an animal of extraordinary endowments on the stage in the beginning of the present century. And yet this is not so;--he is himself an ill.u.s.tration of the breeding in-and-in system--his sire and dam having been half brother and sister, both got by 'Foljambe.' And this breeding in-and-in has handed down his influence to the present time in an extraordinary degree. Take for instance, the cow 'Charmer,' from which as will be seen elsewhere, no fewer than thirty-one descendants are to be sold next Wednesday. She had of course two immediate parents, four progenitors in the second generation, eight in the third, sixteen in the fourth, the number necessarily doubling each step farther back. Of the eight bulls named in the fourth generation from which she was descended, one was by 'Favorite.' She is one-sixteenth 'Favorite' on that account, but the cow to which he was then put was also descended from 'Favorite,' and so are each of the other seven bulls and seven cows which stand on the same level of descent with the gr. gr. g. dam of 'Charmer.' And in fact it will be found on examination that in so far as 'Charmer's' pedigree is known, which it is in some instances to the sixteenth generation, she is not one-sixteenth only but nearly nine-sixteenths of pure Favorite blood. This arises from 'Favorite' having been used repeatedly on cows descended from himself. In the pedigree of 'Charmer' we repeatedly meet with 'Comet'--'Comet' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Young Phoenix' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'George'--'George' was by 'Favorite' and his dam 'Lady Grace' was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Chilton'--'Chilton' was by 'Favorite' and his dam was also by 'Favorite;' with 'Minor'--'Minor' was by 'Favorite' and his dam also was by 'Favorite;' with 'Peeress'--she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Bright Eyes'--she was by 'Favorite' and her dam also by 'Favorite;' with 'Strawberry'--she was by 'Favorite' and her dam by 'Favorite;' 'Dandy,' 'Moss Rose,' among the cows and 'North Star' among the bulls are also of similar descent.

There is no difficulty therefore in understanding how this name appears repeatedly in any given generation of the pedigree of any given animal of the Short-horn breed."

[22] Journal Royal Agricultural Society, volume 20, page 297.

[23] It may be said with truth, that the average health and vigor of a wild herd is much higher than it would be if the feebler portion of the young were reared, as in a state of domestication, instead of being destroyed by the stronger, or perishing from hardship; but if close breeding be, of itself and necessarily, injurious, the whole herd should gradually fail, which is not found to be the case.

CHAPTER VIII.

CROSSING.

The practice of crossing, like that of close breeding, has its strong and its weak side. Substantial arguments can be brought both in its favor and against it. Judiciously practiced, it offers a means of procuring animals _for the butcher_, often superior to and more profitable than those of any pure breed. It is also admissible as the foundation of a systematic and well considered attempt to establish a new breed. Such attempts, however, as they necessarily involve considerable expense, and efforts continued during a long term of years, will be rarely made. But when crossing is practiced injudiciously and indiscriminately, and especially when so done for the purpose of procuring _breeding animals_, it cannot be too severely censured, and is scarcely less objectionable than careless in-and-in breeding.

The following remarks, from the pen of W.C. Spooner, V.S., are introduced as sound and reliable, and as comprising nearly all which need be said on the subject of crossing breeds possessing distinctive characteristics:

"Crossing is generally understood to refer to the alliance of animals of different breeds, such as between a thorough-bred and a half-bred among horses or a South Down and Leicester among sheep. Now the advantages or disadvantages of this system depend entirely on the object we have in view, whether merely to beget an animal for the butcher, or for the purpose of perpetuating the species. If the latter is the object, then crossing should be adopted gradually and with care, and by no means between distant or antagonistic qualities, as for example a thorough-bred and a cart-horse. The result of the latter connection is generally an ill-a.s.sorted and unfavorable animal, too heavy perhaps for one purpose, and too light for another. If we wish to instil more activity into the cart-horse breed, it is better to do so by means of some half-bred animal, whilst the latter can be improved by means of the three-parts-bred horse and this again by the thorough-bred. There is a remarkable tendency, in breeding, for both good qualities and bad to disappear for one or two generations, and to reappear in the second and third; thus an animal often resembles the grand dam more than the dam. This peculiarity is itself an objection to the practice of crossing, as it tends to prevent uniformity and to encourage contrarieties; and thus we find in many flocks and herds that the hopes of the breeders have been entirely baffled and a race of mongrels established.

The first cross is generally successful--a tolerable degree of uniformity is produced, resembling in external conformation the sire, which is usually of a superior breed; and thus the offspring are superior to the dams. These cross-bred animals are now paired amongst each other, and what is the consequence?

Uniformity at once disappears; some of the offspring resemble the grandsire, and others the grandams, and some possess the disposition and const.i.tution of the one and some of the other; and consequently a race of mongrels is perpetuated. If, however, the cross is really a good and desirable one, then, by means of rigorous and continued selection, pursued for several generations, that is, by casting aside, as regards breeding purposes, every animal that does not exhibit uniformity, or possess the qualifications we are desirous of perpetuating, a valuable breed of animals may in the course of time be established. By this system many varieties of sheep have been so far improved as to become almost new breeds; as for instance the New Oxford Downs which have frequently gained prizes at the great Agricultural Meetings as being the best long wooled sheep.

To cross, however, merely for crossing sake--to do so without that care and vigilance which we have deemed so essential--is a practice which cannot be too much condemned. It is in fact a national evil and a sin against society, that is, if carried beyond the first cross, or if the cross-bred animals are used for breeding. A useful breed of animals may thus be lost, and a generation of mongrels established in their place, a result which has followed in numerous instances amongst every breed of animals.

The princ.i.p.al use of crossing, however, is to raise animals for the butcher. In this respect it has not (with sheep) been adopted to the extent which it might to advantage. The male being generally an animal of a superior breed and of a vigorous nature, almost invariably stamps his external form, size and muscular development on the offspring, which thus bear a strong resemblance to him, whilst their internal nature derived from the dam, well adapts them to the locality, as well as to the treatment to which their dams have been accustomed.

With regard to cattle, the system cannot be so advantageously pursued (except for the purpose of improving the size and qualities of the calf, where veal is the object) in as much as every required qualification for breeding purposes can be obtained by using animals of the pure breeds. But with sheep, where the peculiarities of the soil as regards the goodness of feed, and exposure to the severities of the weather, often prevent the introduction of an improved breed, the value of using a new and superior ram is often very considerable, and the weight of mutton is materially increased, without its quality being impaired, while earlier maturity is at the same time obtained. It involves, however, more systematic attention than farmers usually like to bestow, for it is necessary to employ a different ram for each purpose; that is, a native ram for a portion of the ewes to keep up the purity of the breed, and a foreign ram to raise the improved cross-bred animals for fatting either as lambs or sheep. This plan is adopted by many breeders of Leicester sheep, who thus employ South Down rams to improve the quality of the mutton. One inconvenience attending this plan, is the necessity of fatting the maiden ewes as well as the wethers; they may however be disposed of as fat lambs, or the practice of spaying might be adopted, so as to increase the fatting disposition of the animal. Crossing, therefore, should be adopted with the greatest caution and skill where the object is to improve the breed of animals; it should never be practiced carelessly or capriciously, but it may be advantageously pursued with a view to raising superior and profitable animals for the butcher."

In another paper on this subject, after presenting many interesting details regarding British breeds of sheep and the results of crossing, Mr. Spooner says:

"We cannot do better, in concluding our paper, than gather up and arrange in a collected form, the various points of our subject, which appear to be of sufficient importance to be again presented to the attention of our readers. We think, therefore, we are justified in coming to the conclusions:

1st. That there is a direct pecuniary advantage in judicious cross-breeding; that increased size, disposition to fatten, and early maturity, are thereby induced.

2d. That while this may be caused for the most part, by the very fact of crossing, yet it is princ.i.p.ally due to the superior influence of the male over the size and external appearance of the offspring; so that it is desirable, for the purpose of the butcher, that the male should be of a larger frame than the female, and should excel in those peculiarities we are desirous of reproducing. Let it be here however, repeated, as an exceptional truth, that though as a rule the male parent influences mostly the size and external form, and the female parent the const.i.tution, general health and vital powers, yet that the opposite result sometimes takes place.

3d. Certain peculiarities may be imparted to a breed by a single cross. Thus, the ponies of the New Forest exhibit characteristics of blood, although it is many years since that a thorough-bred horse was turned into the forest for the purpose.

So, likewise, we observe in the Hampshire sheep the Roman nose and large heads, which formed so strong a feature in their maternal ancestors, although successive crosses of the South Down were employed to change the character of the breed. * * *

4th. Although in the crossing of sheep for the purpose of the butcher, it is generally advisable to use males of a larger breed, provided they possess a disposition to fatten; yet, in such cases, it is of importance that the _pelvis_ of the female should be wide and capacious, so that no injury should arise in lambing, in consequence of the increased size of the heads of the lambs. The shape of the ram's head should be studied for the same reason. In crossing, however, for the purpose of establishing a new breed, the size of the male must give way to other more important considerations; although it will still be desirable to use a large female of the breed which we seek to improve. Thus the South Downs have vastly improved the larger Hampshires, and the Leicester the huge Lincolns and the Cotswolds.

5th. Although the benefits are most evident in the first cross, after which, from pairing the cross-bred animals, the defects of one breed or the other, or the incongruities of both, are perpetually breaking out--yet, unless the characteristics and conformation of the two breeds are altogether averse to each other, nature opposes no barrier to their successful admixture; so that in the course of time, by the aid of selection and careful weeding, it is practicable to establish a new breed altogether. This, in fact, has been the history of our princ.i.p.al breeds. * * *

We confess that we cannot entirely admit either of the antagonistic doctrines held by the rival advocates of crossing and pure breeding. The public have reason to be grateful to the exertions of either party; and still more have they respectively reason to be grateful to each other. * * * *

Let us conclude by repeating the advice that, when equal advantages can be attained by keeping a pure breed of sheep, such pure breed should unquestionably be preferred; and that, although crossing for the purpose of the butcher may be practiced with impunity, and even with advantage, yet no one should do so for the purpose of establishing a new breed, unless he has clear and well defined views of the object he seeks to accomplish, and has duly studied the principles on which it can be carried out, and is determined to bestow for the s.p.a.ce of half a life-time his constant and unremitting attention to the discovery and removal of defects."

The term crossing is sometimes used in a much more restricted sense, as in the remark of Mr. Boswell in his essay quoted on page 69 where he says, "When I praise the advantage of crossing I would have it clearly understood that it is only to bring together animals _not nearly related_ but always of _the same breed_." It is evident that such crossing as this is wholly un.o.bjectionable; no one but an avowed and ultra advocate of close breeding could possibly find any fault with it.