(_a_) No. 1. From latex coagulated in the store.

(_b_) No. 2. Compound, from cup washings, etc., skimmings, and naturally coagulated lump.

(_c_) No. 3. Compound, from tree-sc.r.a.p and bark-shavings rubber.

(_d_) No. 4. Earth-sc.r.a.p.

Other variations are possible, but their number is limited, and they all conduce to simplification of working, and a supply to the market of rubber having greater uniformity.

NEED FOR INCREASED CARE WITH LOWER GRADE RUBBER.--In the ordinary procedure of estate-working there appears to be an undesirable variety in the style of lower grade crepes. On some estates an examination of these rubbers would appear to suggest that there need be no expenditure of care in the preparation or the form in which it is made. This is a great mistake. With the exception of the lowest grade (earth-rubber), it would not be unfair to state that the quality of the rubbers on testing should be very little inferior to the No. 1 product. Often, as in the case of naturally coagulated rubbers, they are superior in some respects to ordinary fine pale crepe. Doubtless manufacturers are aware of these facts, but what course is open to them if they find the rubber spoiled for their purpose by the presence of particles of sand, grit, or bark? The possible injury caused by these ingredients cannot be insisted upon too strongly, and it must be evident that great care should be exercised in the preparation of the lower grades of crepe.

As to the particular form of the lower grade crepe rubber, one may apply the remarks made under the section dealing with the best grades. It is common to find thin crepes, medium crepes, and "blanket" crepes. More often than otherwise, the medium and thicker crepes are prepared direct in those forms. It follows that they are liable to attacks of "spot" disease, which, however, is not easily visible in the lowest grades, owing to the dark colour of the rubber. Furthermore, it is not possible to cleanse the rubber so thoroughly if thick crepes are made.

BLOCK RUBBER.--Few estates now prepare block rubber, which is essentially crepe rubber pressed into blocks. In the ordinary process the fresh coagulum is lightly rolled into thin crepe, which is then vacuum-dried.

There are slight variations in the subsequent procedure. Sometimes the rubber as it comes from the vacuum drier is merely allowed to remain on racks overnight before blocking. In other instances, the sticky rubber from the vacuum drier is pa.s.sed once or twice through wet, smooth rolls and hung to dry for some days. The dry crepe is then folded into the pressing box or cut to suit the size of the box. Pressure is applied for some time, and finally the rubber is taken out in one h.o.m.ogeneous ma.s.s. Naturally the appearance of the block depends upon the quality of the parent crepe. Some block rubber is made up thick; other is made in slabs about 3 inches or 4 inches in thickness. With the latter, it should be possible, when held up to the light, to see the shape of a hand held between it and the source of light.

It is possible that an erroneous idea of the strength of block rubber has been formed. It should only be necessary to point out that essentially block rubber is merely pressed crepe rubber. It is inconceivable that the mere action of pressing layers of crepe together would increase the physical quality of the rubber.

The advantages which block rubber possesses are the compactness of the output, its ease of packing, and a saving in freight; but there is the disadvantage, from the consumer's point of view, that extra labour is involved in the preparatory work of cutting up the blocks.

SMOKED CREPE AND SHEET CLIPPINGS.--There appears to be no certain demand for any grade of smoked crepe, and probably all which is put into the market is really comprised of (1) clippings obtained from the ends of sheets, (2) sheets which have been malformed in machining, or (3) sheets showing the presence of many "bubbles."

As to the first cla.s.s it might be explained that through defective rolling, thick ends or edges may be caused. These show signs of contained moisture when the bulk of the sheet is perfectly dry, and as undue delay would otherwise result these moist strips are trimmed and either returned to the smoke-house, or machined to form crepe.

Similarly a torn or otherwise badly formed sheet, when brought from the smoke-house, may be made into crepe, rather than it should prejudice the selling price of the bulk under ruling conditions.

In the same manner, although "bubbles" have no influence upon the quality of the rubber on vulcanisation, sheets thus affected are generally made into crepe.

It cannot possibly be argued that rubber of this description would be in any way inferior to the best smoked sheet for manufacturing purposes, but owing to the prevailing system of evaluation for market purposes, it is necessary to resort to the expedients indicated above.

On some estates the rubber specified in the three cla.s.ses mentioned is not made into crepe, but cut up into small pieces and shipped as "sheet clippings" or "sheet tr.i.m.m.i.n.gs"--a procedure which would appear to be justified by a steady demand. In point of fact, the buyers are really obtaining a first-cla.s.s article (except in superficial appearance) at a reduced price.

CHAPTER XI

_DRYING OF RUBBER_

AIR-DRYING OF CREPE.--It is still the prevailing custom to air-dry crepe rubbers. A few estates, it is true, have artificial driers installed, and in some necessary cases others will be erected. But in the majority of cases where money has been expended in building air-drying sheds, as long as it is only possible to ship rubber regularly air-drying is likely to remain in favour.

The great drawback to air-drying is that one is so dependent upon the weather conditions. In favourable weather the rubber dries well, but in a long period of wet weather rubber may acc.u.mulate at an alarming rate, and the accommodation is sometimes severely taxed. Of course, the rate of drying under the best conditions is mainly dependent on the thickness of the crepe, and every endeavour should be made to maintain a thin style of preparation. If this precaution is not taken, the rubber is liable to recurrent attacks of "spot" disease, and one's troubles are very much augmented. This is a disability to which rubber treated in artificial driers is not liable. Still, air-dried rubber can be made equal, if not superior, in appearance to pale rubbers prepared by other processes.

For the lowest grades of crepe air-drying is always likely to remain the only method, as it would be extremely unsafe to submit them to heat.

It is noted in ordinary practice that the rate of drying on different estates, for the same type of rubber, may vary widely. Naturally the construction of the house has a great effect, and this subject will receive attention in a subsequent chapter.

Similarly the position of the drying-shed exerts an important influence, and the erection of the building in low-lying surroundings is always calculated to prolong the drying period appreciably. Incidentally this means that the building must be larger than a normal rate of drying would otherwise demand.

The combination of a poor type of drying-house, a low-lying situation, and a prolonged wet season, might render it advisable to abandon the air-drying of high grade crepes in favour of artificial drying.

ARTIFICIAL DRIERS FOR CREPE.--It is more common to find artificial driers in use in Ceylon than in Malaya, possibly because these driers have been in use in Ceylon for other products. Some time ago the question of installing artificial driers received the serious attention of a number of estates in this country, chiefly on account of the incidence of fungoid and bacterial diseases in crepe rubber. The simple treatment for the prevention of these diseases is to get the rubber dry in the shortest possible s.p.a.ce of time.

In most cases it is found sufficient to roll crepe thin for air-drying in order to prevent the appearance of coloured spots. It is found, however, that some drying-houses are so badly planned and constructed, that quick drying under even the best of conditions is a practical impossibility.

Cases have been known in which the disease may disappear almost entirely during a period of freedom from rain, only to recur as soon as wet weather sets in again. There can be no doubt that, on the whole, the number of cases of "spot" disease is on the decline; but equally it is certain that a very few estates will always be liable to outbreaks as long as drying is attempted in existing houses. For these reasons it is a poor policy to temporise, and the only sound policy in extreme cases would be to give up ordinary air-drying in favour of some method of artificial drying. As regards the majority of estates preparing pale crepe for various reasons, it is not expected that any will instal artificial driers. Money has been expended in elaborate buildings which certainly do the work for which they were designed. As long, therefore, as the accommodation is sufficient, and regular shipments are the rule, it is expected that ordinary air-drying will still remain the general practice.

Of the better-known artificial driers, there are only three which merit serious consideration in these pages. They are the vacuum driers, the Colombo Commercial Company's hot-air drier, and the Michie-Golledge process.

VACUUM DRIERS.--The vacuum drier is so well known that only a brief description need be given. It consists of a chamber heated by steam pipes and capable of having the contained air and moisture withdrawn by a pump.

This description sounds very simple, and in practice the operation of vacuum drying is really a simple one, and can well be entrusted to an intelligent coolie under efficient supervision. Indicators are fitted which show the vacuum pressure and the pressure of steam in the heating pipes which travel underneath horizontal slabs upon which trays may be placed.

Still, in spite of the apparent simplicity of the process, there would appear to be a number of little details which, if overlooked, prove to be factors influencing the result to a considerable degree. Thus it is not uncommon to find complaints that the rubber is not dry when packed. The writers have seen rubber taken from a vacuum drier still containing a visible quant.i.ty of moisture. One would have imagined that continuous working of the drier would give the experience necessary to obtain dry rubber, but, apparently, such is not the case in a number of instances.

Elaborate instructions are given by the makers, but often they are more honoured in the breach than in the observance. Really, there are only two points to bear in mind:

(1) That the rubber must be fairly thin.

(2) That the temperature be not allowed to rise too high. Some makers advise 140 F. as a maximum, but no harm results from a temperature of 150 to 160 as long as the interval is not prolonged.[11]

[11] These figures refer to temperatures recorded by thermometers placed in the folds of the rubber.

These two points presume that the vacuum drier is true to its name, and that one can obtain a maximum steady pressure. The machines are so well made now that no drier should be taken over from those responsible for its erection unless it can show a vacuum pressure of 28 inches within fifteen minutes of starting the pump; and with the pump stopped, there should not be a greater fall in pressure than 1 inch within ten minutes after stopping the pump.

One of the most frequent sources of error is the control of steam pressure which is responsible for the temperature of the drier. It is quite unnecessary and unwise to maintain any steam pressure once the drying is well under way. All that is necessary is to heat the chamber well, with a steam pressure of 5 lbs., before inserting the rubber. As soon as the maximum vacuum pressure has been obtained, steam should be shut off from the heating pipes, and it will be found that the temperature is well maintained throughout the operation with a rise of ten to twenty degrees at the end. If the drier is working at a vacuum pressure of 28 inches, and if the crepe has been prepared thin enough, the rubber should be quite dry within two hours. Should the operation have to be extended to two and a half hours at 28 inches vacuum pressure, it is a sign that the crepe is too thick. On such occasions it is often noticed that these thicker crepes are not thoroughly dry, having moist spots enclosed in them. On re-rolling, these moist patches become easily visible, and are a source of great annoyance, inasmuch as they take quite a long time to dry out.

As mentioned before, the crepe for vacuum drying should be thin. There is no necessity to give it a superfine finish, and the presence of small holes is quite permissible, as they disappear on subsequent re-rolling. The thin crepe may be folded loosely to the length (or breadth) of the tray several times, but in no other way can the drier be expected to perform its work satisfactorily. A case was noted in which thin crepe was excellently prepared, and four or five layers were rolled together for vacuum drying.

Naturally this mode of procedure does not give the drier a fair chance, and it would be ridiculous to judge vacuum drying on the results. After two and a half hours at a temperature of 145 F. the rubber appeared to be only about three parts dry, and the subsequent air-drying extended well into a fortnight.

It is the common practice to screw up the door of the chamber as tightly as possible. As a rule it is found in course of time that the obtainable maximum vacuum pressure decreases. This may be attributed solely to the forcible s.c.r.e.w.i.n.g up of the door. Around the inside edges of the door are strips of rubber compound, the function of which is to form a tight joint.

Should the door be screwed up too tightly, these strips become deformed in course of time, and slight leaks occur. It should be pointed out that it is only necessary to screw up the door at the beginning of the operation. When the vacuum has been obtained, the screw pressure may be released, as the atmospheric pressure outside the chamber is more than ample to keep the door in a close fitting position. This will be obvious from the fact that the difference in pressure between the inside and the outside of the door amounts to, say, 28 inches atmospheric pressure--_i.e._, nearly 14 lbs. per square foot. By slackening the screw handles, therefore, as soon as the indicator shows the maximum working vacuum pressure, the life of the door joints may be prolonged, and the drier will remain efficient for a longer time.

A careful consideration of the question of temperature leads one to the conclusion that the practice of placing a thermometer through the roof of the chamber does not enable one to determine the temperature correctly. In the same way a thermometer suspended behind the observation window cannot indicate the temperature of the rubber, as in both of these positions the thermometer must be influenced by radiation from the walls of the chamber.

The only position in which the correct temperature could be indicated is between the folds of crepe. This can be arranged easily so as to enable one to read the temperature from the observation window.

COLOMBO COMMERCIAL COMPANY'S DRIER.--The drier of the Colombo Commercial Company consists in principle of a number of small chambers or units in which crepe rubber is placed, and through which hot air is pa.s.sed. As in the case of vacuum drying, a great deal depends upon the preliminary treatment of the rubber. If the crepe is not rolled thin enough drying will be unduly prolonged, with a possibility that the rubber will become tacky.

The temperature usually obtained is about 150 F., and if the rubber is thin the production of an installation of two chambers should be at the rate of 1 lb. of dry rubber per minute. The usual period of drying is under two hours. One advantage which this drier has over the vacuum drier is that the chamber can be opened at any time for a short period to withdraw or insert trays. The thin crepe is folded several times, as in the case of vacuum-drying.

Figures obtained from the actual working of a drier in Ceylon are given below:

-------------------------------------------------+----------------------- CHAMBER 1.--TEMPERATURE 160-180F. | -------------------------------------------------|CHAMBER 2.--TEMPERATURE _NO. OF | _DRYING | _WEIGHT OF | _WEIGHT OF | 150-165F.

Tray._ | Period._ | Wet Rubber._ | Dry Rubber._ | --------+----------+--------------+--------------+----------------------- |Hrs. Mins.| Lbs. | Lbs. | 1 | 1 22 | 7-1/2 | 6 |Worked similarly 2 | 1 42 | 7-1/2 | 6 |to No. 1. Yielded 3 | 1 57 | 7-1/2 | 6 |in 2 hrs. 23 mins.

4 | 1 57 | 7-1/2 | 6 |70-3/4 lbs. dry rubber, 5 | 1 57 | 7 | 5-3/4 |from 87-1/2 lbs. wet 6 | 1 57 | 7-1/2 | 6 |rubber.

7 | 2 0 | 7-1/2 | 6 | 8 | 2 0 | 7-1/2 | 6 | 9 | 2 11 | 6-1/2 | 5 | 10 | 2 11 | 7-1/2 | 6 | 11 | 2 11 | 7-1/2 | 6 | 12 | 2 18 | 7-1/2 | 6 | --------+----------+--------------+--------------+----------------------- | | 88-1/2 | 70-3/4 | --------+----------+--------------+--------------+-----------------------

It will be seen, therefore, that the drier had an output in 2 hrs. 23 mins.

of 141-1/2 lbs., which is at the rate of 1 lb. per minute approximately.

As the rubber leaves the driers it resembles vacuum-dried rubber in being surface-sticky. This stickiness is only temporary, and is got rid of by pa.s.sing the crepe through wet rolls. Opinions differ as to when this rolling should be given. On some estates the rubber is only allowed to cool a little before pa.s.sing through the rolls; on others it is given a day or so before rolling. The methods of rolling also differ. In some factories the rubber has been cut to lengths before drying, and these lengths are merely rolled together by simple pressure. Other estates prefer to re-macerate the crepe while still fairly warm and soft. It is probable that little harm, if any, results from this re-maceration while the rubber is soft, as it is more easily worked in this condition. The thick rubber is then generally hung for a few days to air-dry before packing. As most of the moisture taken up by the dry rubber is surface moisture, three or four days is usually found ample for air-drying.

MICHIE-GOLLEDGE SYSTEM.--The Michie-Golledge system comprises a process of preparation and drying. The latex is diluted with two, three, or four volumes of water and coagulated with acid in a vessel which is rotated with a churning motion. In this cylinder there are curved and fixed blades. The revolving cylinder and its ribs force the latex against the curved blades so as to cause an eddy in the middle of the machine. Here the rubber coagulates and acc.u.mulates, the remaining liquor whirling round outside the blades. It can be imagined that with such dilute latex, the coagulum is very soft and spongy. This soft ma.s.s is pa.s.sed through a machine which cuts it into "worms" about 3/16 inch in section. These are placed upon wire trays and dried by means of hot air. The "worms" when dry are re-macerated and built up into medium and thick crepes. The colour of the rubber prepared by this process is usually very good. When treated in a Colombo drier the "worms" usually require about two hours to dry, so that crepe rubber may be packed at latest on the fourth or fifth day, as in the case of vacuum-dried rubber.