When we come to examine the customs and habits of these Eskimos, we are at once struck with their resemblance to what we have seen was the probable state of life among the Cave-men. At Solute, for instance, we have vast refuse heaps of bones of animals. We find similar heaps around the rude huts of the Eskimos to-day. Captain Parry describes one as follows: "In every direction round the huts were lying innumerable bones of walruses and seals, together with skulls of dogs, bears, and foxes."<41>

Other points of comparison strike us when reading Sir John Lubbock's account of their habits and customs. For instance: "Their food, if cooked at all, is broiled or boiled; their vessels, being of stone or wood, can not, indeed, be put on the fires, but heated stones are thrown in until the water becomes hot enough and the food is cooked." "Their food consists princ.i.p.ally of reindeer, musk-ox, walrus, seals, birds, and salmon. They will, however, eat any kind of animal food. They are very fond of fat and marrow, to get at which they pound the bones with a stone." "The clothes of the Eskimos are made from the skins of the reindeer, seals, and birds, sewn together with sinews. For needles they use the bones of either birds or fishes." "The Eskimos have also a great natural ability for drawing. In many cases they have made rude maps for our officers, which have turned out to be substantially correct. Many of their bone implements are covered with sketches."

Ill.u.s.tration of Eskimo Art.-----------

In this cut we have a bone drill on which are sketched reindeer, geese, a braider or flat-bottomed boat, a tent around which various articles of clothing are hung up to dry, a woman apparently engaged in the preparation of food, and a hunting scene.

Now, we know that savage tribes, widely separated by time and s.p.a.ce, will, after all, under the pressure of common necessities, invent much the same implements and live much the same life. But still, where every thing seems to coincide, the climate, the animals, the mode of life proved the same, and especially when both are seen possessed of a common artistic skill, together with the known fact that in the Western Continent the Eskimos did formerly live much farther south; there is surely a strong case made out, and therefore the probabilities are that the Eskimos are the representatives of the Cave-men of Europe.<42> And yet we must be cautious on this point; or rather we remember that the phrase, "predecessors of the Eskimos," does not imply that they were in all respects like them. An examination of the rude sketches of the Cave-men left by themselves seems to indicate that the whole body was covered with hair. "The hunter in the Antler from Duluth Cave has a long, pointed beard, and a high crest of hair on the poll utterly unlike the Eskimo type. The figures are also those of a slim and long-jointed man."<43>

This completes our review of the Paleolithic people, and it only remains to present some general conclusions. The Glacial or Pleistocene Age is seen to have been of immense duration, and characterized by great changes in climate. We have found that two races of men occupied Europe during this time. The men of the River Drift are the most ancient.

We have seen that they can be traced over wide-extended areas. They seem to have invaded Europe, along with the great invasion of animals from Asia, const.i.tuting the temperate group of animals; and with those animals they probably shifted back and forth, as the cold of the Glacial Age increased or waned. These people seem to have completely vanished.

At a later date, when the cold of the Glacial Age was once more severe, a.s.sociated with animals now living only in high northern lat.i.tudes, came the Cave-men, whose discussion has formed the subject of this chapter.

It will be seen how much we owe to patient investigators. The results are, indeed, bewildering. They make us acquainted with a people the very existence of whom was not known a few years back. Though the whole life of those ancient races seemed hopelessly lost in the night of time, the gloom is irradiated by the light of modern science, which lays before our astonished vision the remains of arts and industries of the primitive tribes that occupied Europe during the morning-time of human life.

REFERENCES

(1) The ma.n.u.script of this chapter was submitted to Prof. B. B.

Wright, of Overlain, for criticism.

(2) On the formation of caves consult Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 71; also Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements," p. 429.

(3) Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements," b. 445.

(4) p.r.o.nounced Bret'-cha, a rock composed of fragments of older rock, united by a cement.

(5) Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 92.

(6) Pengelly, quoted by Geikie, "Prehistoric Europe," p. 93.

(7) Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements," p. 462.

(8) Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements," p. 463.

(9) Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 102.

(10) Mr. Dawkins ("Early Man in Britain," p. 203) does not consider M. Dupont justified in dividing the remains found in the caverns of Belgium into two epochs. He considers them to be the remains of the same people, some tribes being, perhaps, farther advanced than others. Mr. Dawkins is, of course, high authority, but we think his argument could also be applied to prove there was no real difference between the men of the River Drift and the so-called Cave-men. This, in fact, is the opinion of many, including Mr. Evans, who is exceptionally well qualified to judge of these remains. We think, however, in view of the evidence adduced by Mr. Pengelly, Mr. Geikie, Mr.

Dawkins, and others, few will venture to doubt that there is a wide difference between the men of the River Drift and those of the Caves.

(11) "Prehistoric Times," p. 330.

(12) "Early Man in Britain," p. 198.

(13) French writers make four divisions of these caves, according to the degree of finish, which the specimens show.

Mr. Dawkins does not think the difference in the implements sufficient to justify this view. With the possible exception of Le Moustier, as stated above, we think his view correct, which is also the opinion of Mr. Evans. ("Ancient Stone Implements,"

p. 439.) (14) Rau's "Early Man in Europe," p. 88.

(15) Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 205.

(16) Ibid., p.

(17) It is, however, thought that the station was used as a camping-ground by very different people, at widely different times.

(18) Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," p. 434.

(19) "Prehistoric Times," p. 335.

(20) Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 12.

(21) Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," p. 338. J. C. Southall, in his valuable work, "Recent Origin of Man," p. 195, _et seq.,_ argues that pottery was known at this time, and cites instances where it is stated to have been found. This is the opinion of Figuier also. ("Primitive Man," p. 54.) But Mr.

Dawkins points out that these pieces of pottery are clearly of a Neolithic style, and does not think it proven that they are of Paleolithic age. Mr. Geikie also denies that there is any proof that they were acquainted with the potter's art. ("Prehistoric Europe," p. 18.) So the highest place in the scale of civilization we can a.s.sign these people to is that of Upper Savageism.

(22) Rau's "Early Man in Europe," p. 79; (23) Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 22.

(24) Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 90.

(25) Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 210.

(26) "Prehistoric Times," p. 341.

(27) Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 105.

(28) Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 111.

(29) Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 105.

(30) Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 102.

(31) Rau's "Early Man in Europe," p. 73.

(32) "Prehistoric Europe," p. 18.

(33) Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 237.

(34) Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 117.

(35) Ibid., p. 118.

(36) Ibid., pp. 94 and 95.

(37) This, as Sir John Lubbock points out, depends on our meaning of the word "religion." ("Prehistoric Times," p. 589.) (38) "The princ.i.p.al instance are Cro-Magnon, Frontal, and Furforz, in Belgium; Aurignac, Bruniquel, and Mentone, in France." "Cave-Hunting," chap. vii.

(39) "Contributions to N. A. Ethnology," vol. i, p. 102; "U.S. Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian," vol. vii, p. 12; Abbott's "Primitive Industry," p. 517.

(40) "Primitive Industry," 518.

(41) Quoted by Lubbock,"Prehistoric Times," p. 507.

(42) Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 242.

(43) Prof. Grant Allen, _Popular Science Monthly,_ November, 1882, p. 99.

Chapter V

ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE.<1>

Interest in the Antiquity of man--Connected with the Glacial Age--The Subject Difficult--Proofs of a Glacial Age--State of Greenland to-day--The Terminal Moraine--Appearance of the North Atlantic--Interglacial Age--Causes of the Glacial Age--Croll's Theory--Geographical causes--The two theories not Antagonistic--The date of the Glacial Age--Probable length of the Paleolithic Age--Time since the close of the Glacial Age--Summary of results.

As we have already remarked, geological periods give us no insight as to the actual pa.s.sage of years. To say that man lived in the Glacial Age, and that we have some faint traces of his presence in still earlier periods, after all conveys to our minds only vague ideas of a far-away time. The more a geologist studies the structure of the earth, the more impressed is he with the magnitude of the time that must have pa.s.sed since "The Beginning." At present, however, there are no means known of accurately measuring the time that has pa.s.sed. It is just as well that it is so, since, were it known, the human mind would be utterly incapable of comprehending it. But as to the antiquity of man, it is but natural that we should seek more particularly to solve the problem and express our answer in some term of years.

Now, we have seen that the question of the antiquity of man is intimately connected with that of the Glacial Age. That is to say, the relics of man as far as we know them in Europe, are found under such circ.u.mstances that we feel confident they are not far removed from the period of cold. For it will be found that those conservative scholars who do not think that man preceded the Glacial Age, or inhabited Europe during the long course of years included in that period, do think he came into Europe as soon as it pa.s.sed away. So, in any case, if we can determine the date of the Glacial Age, we shall have made a most important step in advance in solving the problem of the antiquity of man himself. So it seems to us best to go over the subject of the Glacial Age again, and see what conclusions some of our best thinkers have come to as to its cause, when it occurred, and other matters in relation to it.

It is best to state frankly at the outset that this topic is one of the great battle-grounds of science to-day, and that there are as yet but few points well settled in regard to it. One needs but attempt to read the literature on this subject to become quickly impressed with the necessity of making haste slowly in forming any conclusions. He must invoke the aid of the astronomer, geologist, physical-geographer, and physicist. Yet we must not suppose that questions relating to the Glacial Age are so abstruse that they are of interest only to the scholar. On the contrary, all ought to be interested in them. They open up one of the most wonderful chapters in the history of the world.

They recall from the past a picture of ice-bound coasts and countries groaning under icy loads, where now are harbors enlivened by the commerce of the world, or ripening fields attesting the vivifying influence of a genial sun. Let us, therefore, follow after the leaders in thought. When we come to where they can not agree we can at least see what both sides have to say.

Somewhat at the risk of repet.i.tion, we will try and impress on our readers a sense of the reality and severity of the Glacial Age. There is danger in regarding this as simply a convenient theory that geologists have originated to explain some puzzling facts, that it is not very well founded, and is liable to give way any day to some more ingenious explanation. On the contrary, this whole matter has been worked out by very careful scholars. There is, perhaps, no great conclusion in any science which rests upon a surer foundation than this, and if we are to be guided by our reason at all in deducting the unknown from the known, the past from the present, we can not refuse our a.s.sent to the reality of the Glacial Age of the Northern Hemisphere in all its more important features.<2> At the present day glaciers do exist in several places on the earth. They are found in the Alps and the mountains of Norway, and the Caucasus, in Europe. The Himalaya mountains support immense glaciers in Asia; and in America a few still linger in the more inaccessible heights of the Sierra Nevada. It is from a study of these glaciers, mainly however, those of the Alps, that geologists have been enabled to explain the true meaning of certain formations they find in both Europe and America, that go by the name of drift.

When in an Alpine valley we come upon a glacier, filling it from side to side, there will be noticed upon both sides a long train of rock, drift, and other _debris_ that have fallen down upon its surface from the mountain sides. If two of these ice-rivers unite to form one glacier, two of these trains will then be borne along in the middle of the resulting glacier. As this glacier continues down the valley, it at length reaches a point where a further advance is rendered impossible by the increased temperature melting the ice as fast as it advances. At this point the train of rocks and dirt are dumped, and of course form great mounds, called moraines. The glacier at times shrinks back on its rocky bed and allows explorers to examine it.

In such cases they find the rocks smoothed and polished, but here and there marked with long grooves and striae. These points are learned from an examination of existing glaciers. Further down the valley, where now the glaciers never extend, are seen very distinctly the same signs.

There are the same moraines, striated rocks, and bowlders that have evidently traveled from their home up the valley. The only explanation possible in this case is that once the glaciers extended to that point in the valley.

It required a person who was perfectly familiar with the behavior of Alpine glaciers, and knew exactly what marks they left behind in their pa.s.sage, to point out the proofs of their former presence in Northern Europe and America, where it seems almost impossible to believe they existed. Such a man was Louis Aga.s.siz, the eminent naturalist. Born and educated in Switzerland, he spent nine years in researches among the glaciers of the mountains of his native country. He proved the former wide extension of the glaciers of Switzerland. With these results before them, geologists were not long in showing that there had once been glacial ice over a large part of Europe and North America.

The proofs in this case are almost exactly the same as those used to show that the ancient glaciers of Switzerland were once larger than now.

But as the great glaciers of the glacial age were many times larger than any thing we know of at the present day, there were of course different results produced.

For instance, the water circulating under Alpine glaciers is enabled to wash out and carry away the ma.s.s of pulverized rock and dirt ground along underneath the ice. But when the glaciers covered such an enormous extent of country as they did in the Glacial Age, the water could not sweep away this detritus, and so great beds of gravel, sand, and clay would be formed over a large extent of country. But to go over the entire ground would require volumes; it is sufficient to give the results.

The interior of Greenland to-day is covered by one vast sea of ice.

Explorers have traversed its surface for many miles; not a plant, or stone, or patch of earth is to be seen. In the Winter it is a snow-swept waste. In the Summer streams of ice-cold water flow over its surface, penetrating here and there by creva.s.ses to unknown depths. This great glacier is some twelve hundred miles long, by four hundred in width.<3> Vast as it is, it is utterly insignificant as compared with the great continental glacier that geologists a.s.sure us once held in its grasp the larger portion of North America.