Though called a hill, it is in reality a projecting headland. Back of it rise still higher hills. The portion overhanging the city is very precipitous, in fact, almost incapable of ascent. There is, however, a pathway up this front, ascending in places by stone steps. On this front it did not need very strong fortifications, yet sections of stone wall, serving for this purpose, are to be seen. They have been mostly thrown down, and the stones rolled or tumbled down the hill to be utilized in building. The main defensive works are where the headland commences, from which point the city is not visible.

Ill.u.s.tration of Section of Fortress Walls.-------------

In this ill.u.s.tration we have a view of the three ma.s.sive walls which defended the citadel. They are really wonderful works. In order to understand the construction, we will present an imaginary section of the walls. The walls support terraces, but they rose above the terraces so as to form a parapet. To prevent the acc.u.mulation of water behind the parapet, channels were cut through the walls at regular intervals to drain them. The height of the outer wall is at present twenty-seven feet; the width of the terrace thirty-five feet. The second wall is eighteen feet high; the width of its terrace is also eighteen feet. The height of the third wall is fourteen feet.

The Incas divided the year into twelve months, but we do not learn how they kept track of the years. In this respect they were behind the Mexicans. Neither do we know of any hieroglyphics for days, or months, or years. In the matter of keeping records, they must have been far below the Mexicans. Our next ill.u.s.tration is that of one of their knot records, or quippos. It is a very rude attempt to a.s.sist the memory. To the base cord are attached other threads of various colors, and tied in various ways. We, of course, know but very little about them. It is claimed, however, that a red thread signified a soldier, or war; a yellow one signified gold; a white one silver, or peace; a green one wheat, or maize. A single knot is said to have stood for ten; two knots, twenty; a knot doubly intertwined, one hundred, etc. Also the position of the knots on the threads was to be considered, their distance apart, the way the threads were twisted, and many other details.<46> It is manifest, however, that this system of records is of very little value, and is way below the picture-writing of the Mexicans.

Ill.u.s.tration of Quippos, or Knot Record.--------------

Take it all in all, the Incas are indeed an interesting people. We believe, however, their culture has been greatly overrated. Our object in this chapter has been to give an outline of the Incas and the tribes subject to them. It is impossible in these few pages to give more than an outline. Should the reader, by the perusal of these pages, acquire an interest in the culture of the Andean people just before the Spanish invasion, and be thereby induced to continue his investigations, the writer will consider such a result reward enough, even though the conclusions reached should be totally opposed to those set forth in this chapter on Ancient Peru.

REFERENCES

(1) Xeres: "Report on the Discovery of Peru," Markham's translation, Hakluyt Society's Publication.

(2) Buckle's "History of Civilization," chap. ii.

(3) Squier's "Peru," p. 9. The Vicuna is a species of the llama.

(4) Squier's "Peru," p. 12. The quinoa is a species of plant of the same genus as our pig-weeds. But it is a larger plant, and its seeds give a very nutritious meal. The biscacha is about the size and shape of the rabbit. It belongs to the chinchilla family. The llama is the only representative of the camel family on the western hemisphere. There were three species of this genus in Peru, the llama, alpaca, and vicuna. These domesticated and const.i.tuted what the Spaniards in their first reports called sheep.

(5) Squier's "Peru," p. 12.

(6) Morton's "Crania Americanae," pp. 6, 83. Winch.e.l.l's "Pre-Adamites," p. 388.

(7) H. L. Morgan. "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family," p. 255; other works by the same author, "House and House-life of American Aborigines," and "Ancient Society."

(8) The Quichuas were a closely related tribe to the Incas, and their name has been given to the language of Peru. But as the Incas were the ruling tribe, their name should have been given to this family of languages.

(9) "The Geographical Distribution of the Tribes of the Inca Empire," in "Journal of the Geographical Society," Vol. XLI, p.

281, _et seq._ (10) "Peru," p. 571.

(11) Foster's "Prehistoric Races," p. 375. The Zuni Indians have indeed preserved a tradition of the visit of Coronado three hundred and fifty years ago, but in such a form that no one not acquainted with the facts would guess the meaning. "Fifth Annual Report Archaeological Inst.i.tute," p. 40.

(12) More than one-third of Mr. Prescott's quotations are from this authority.

(13) Morton.

(14) This idea was largely based on the differences of the skulls. On this point see "Fourth Annual Report Peabody Museum."

Some authors speak rather vaguely of the ancient race of the t.i.ticaca basin. We know of no good foundation for such expressions.

(15) Garcilla.s.so impresses on his readers the idea that the Incas was the only tribe at all civilized. The Aymara Indians were certainly as far advanced as the Incas, and even surpa.s.sed them in the art of cutting stone, if we conclude the ruins at Tiahuanuco to be of Aymara origin. The tribes of the coast region were certainly not far behind. The Muyscas, of Bogota, who were never under the dominion of the Incas, were yet possessed of a high degree of culture.

(16) Markham in Forbes's "Aymara Indians," p. 111.

(17) "Peru," p. 427.

(18) "It was from Cuzco the nearest point to the sun-rising."

(Markham.) (19) Their name for the t.i.ticaca basin.

(20) Markham, in Forbes's "Aymara Indians."

(21) _American Antiquarian,_ Sept., 1884, p. 295, _et seq._ (22) It is manifest that, during the centuries of slow development which the Incas underwent, they had a great many chiefs. How many we shall never know. Garcilla.s.so gives us a list of fourteen, including Huascar and Atahualpa. Montesino generously increases this number to one hundred and one. Neither of them knew any thing positive about it; but this latter number is the more reasonable of the two. Mr. Markham, who goes at the problem in another way, thinks there were five historical Incas, counting Huayna-Capac the last. He surmises that the first may have flourished two hundred years before the conquest.

(23) Markham's Garcilla.s.so's "Royal Commentaries," Vol. I, p. 66.

(24) Markham's translation, p. 151.

(25) Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 100.

(26) Our authority is Christoval Molina, a priest of Cuzco. He made a report to the bishop, which must have been written some time between 1570 and 1584, on the "Fables and Rites of the Incas." This was translated by Markham, and published by Hakluyt Society in 1873. He obtained his information by gathering together a number of aged Indians, including some priests, who had partic.i.p.ated in these ceremonies in the days of the Incas.

(27) This writer, a native Indian, wrote about the same time as Garcilla.s.so.

(28) "Fables and Rites of the Incas," p. 105.

(29) "Peruvian Antiquities," p. 105.

(30) "Peru," p. 5.

(31) Many such quotations could be given, not only from Garcilla.s.so, but from Molina, Salcamayhua, and others.

(32) Address before the Historical Society of New Mexico.

(33) We can not help wondering if the Incas did not have two chief executives. This would make them similar to the Iroquois, and most of the more southern tribes, such as we have already seen to be true of the Mexicans. Mr. Bandelier says there is abundant proof that the Incas had two chiefs--one the "dispensing Inca," the other the "speaking head."

("Archaeological Tour in Mexico," p. 167, note 6.) (34) "Travels," Markham's Translation, p. 164.

(35) In Forbes's "Aymara Indians," p. 109.

(36) Indian architecture from the Sioux lodge to the houses of Uxmal, Mitla, and Tiahuanuco, is only understood through Indian social organization." (Bandelier.) (37) "Peru," p. 214.

(38) "Two Years in Peru," Vol. I, p. 283.

(39) Markham's "Introduction," to "Report on the Discovery of Peru."

(40) "In this case it is nonsense to talk of hundreds."

(Hutchinson.) (41) Markham, in Journal of the Royal Geog. Society, Vol. XLI.

(42) Squier's "Peru," p. 375.

(43) The dimensions are: Length, thirteen feet five inches; height above ground, seven feet two inches; thickness, one foot six inches. (Squier.) (44) Squier's "Peru," p. 336.

(45) Markham, in "Journal of Geog. Soc.," Vol. XLI.

(46) "Peruvian Antiquities," p. 110.