The character of the primary condensation, the direction and force of the wind, and the direction of the secondary condensation or scud, must be the main reliance of the observer. But I must reiterate that they all differ in different kinds of storms, in different seasons of the same year, and the same seasons of different years; and the observer must be careful to make due allowance for those differences.

There are, however, divers other secondary signs, which, although not alone to be relied upon, will aid the observer, if carefully studied, when the character of the clouds, and the pressure of easterly or southerly wind and scud, are not decisive. Of these, a large cla.s.s are electrical.

The smoke descends the adjoining chimney-flues, or outside of the chimney, toward the ground.

Thus, Darwin, as quoted by Hone:

"The smoke from chimneys right ascends, Then, _spreading_, back to earth it bends."

Smoke is electrified _positively_, by the act of combustion; the earth and the adjacent atmosphere, when storms are gathering or approaching, is _negative_. Hence the smoke spreads, and is attracted downward by an opposite electricity. On the other hand, it is interesting to see, at other times, and when the difference in temperature is not material, but the whole atmosphere is positive, with what rapidity and compactness the smoke will ascend in a _straight and elevated column_ from the chimney, repelled by a similar electricity. I am aware it is generally supposed the smoke descends because the _air is lighter_. But it is a mistake. I have seen it descend when the barometer was at 30.60, or .60 above the mean.

There is, too, a draught downward in chimneys, in such cases when there is no smoke or fire in any of its flues. Thus Jenner says: "The soot falls down;" whether he meant by this that there was an actual fall of soot other than what is occasioned by the rain falling in through the chimney top, and disturbing the soot, as sometimes happens, I do not know. It occurs rarely, and is of very little practical importance. But every housewife knows that chimneys, which have been used in winter, and are full of soot, _smell_ before storms. The odor results from a downward draught and the dampness of the air. So the smoke from one flue will descend another, into some unused room, on such occasions. Another cla.s.s of these electrical signs are felt by those who are suffering from chronic diseases, which have affected the nerves and made them sensitive. Thus Jenner:

"Old Betty's joints are on the rack."

And Hone adds:

"Her corns with shooting pains torment her, And to her bed untimely send her."

But Old Betty's rheumatism or corns are not alone in this. Those whose bones have been broken feel it. All invalids feel it. And, indeed, all observing healthy persons may, and do, although all are not distinctly conscious of it. It is common for such to say, I feel sleepy, or I feel dull, or, It _feels_ like snow, or _feels_ like rain, and thus from their own feelings to be able to predict, not only falling weather, but its _character_, whether snow or rain, at a time when either may occur consistently with appearances.

This change is a change from the positive electricity which is so congenial to the active--"bracing" is the usual term--to negative and damp--for this change is accompanied by condensation, as I believe all changes from positive to negative are. Certain it is, if the atmosphere is highly charged with negative electricity, condensation takes place; if with positive, evaporation. Perhaps it is a change of the a.s.sociated electricity which accompanies magnetism, and not of the free atmospheric electricity alone. Hence another phenomenon alluded to by Jenner:

"The walls are damp, the ditches smell."

There are localities where this dampness is very obvious. The celebrated William Cobbett, many years since, when a farmer on Long Island, observed and published the fact that the stones grew damp before a storm. I know of flagging stones that usually grow damp two or three hours before rain, especially in spring and fall, and every step taken upon them is made visible by a corresponding increase of condensation.

The reverse of this takes place just before the close of storms. Flagging stones, and walls under cover, will frequently become dry before the rain ceases. The negative electricity becomes less as the positive prevails, although the clouds above are still dropping rain.

In the comparatively moist, showery climate of England, these changes from positive to negative alternate rapidly between successive showers; but observations of electric phenomena, or of clouds, in that climate, are not, without qualification, safe guides for us.

So "the ditches smell," particularly in the evening before a rain, when the immediate surface-atmosphere is charged with negative electricity, and the _condensing moisture_ prevents the diffusion of the odors. For the same reason the candle will not relight, and there is crackling in the ashes or lamp. Thus, again, Virgil:

"Maidens that nightly toil the tangled fleece Divine the coming tempest; in the lamp _Crackles_ the oil, the gathering wick grows dim."

Virgil did not live in our cold climate, and knew nothing of the crackling in the fire, or in the ashes or coals which remain after the wood is consumed. The lamp exhibits it on a smaller scale, and perhaps he had noticed it when in company with the maidens. But it is sometimes noticeable even in the lamp or candle with us. A small particle of moisture will produce it, in a marked degree, at any time.

In winter, when the air is highly positive and cold, the candle can be blown out, and by another puff of the breath relighted, with ease. But when the electricity before a storm becomes negative, and partial condensation takes place, this can not be done. This partial condensation before storms and showers shows itself upon vessels containing cold-water, in summer. It seems to be the received opinion, that the condensation is evidence of a greater _quant.i.ty_ of moisture in the atmosphere. But this, too, is a mistake, and hence the little reliance to be placed on hygrometers.

This partial condensation is sometimes visible. When the sun shines clearly, at the east or west, through a _small opening_ in the clouds, the condensing vapor is shown by the streaks of sunlight, just as the fine particles of dust are seen in a dark room, when a few rays of sunlight are admitted through a small aperture. This phenomenon is often observed, and it is said of it--"It's a going to rain; _the sun is drawing water_."

Virgil alludes to this as seen in the east in the morning, thus:

"But when beneath the dawn _red-fingered rays_ Through the dense band of clouds _diverging_ break,

Ill does the leaf defend the mellowing grape; Leaps on the noisy roof the plenteous hail, Fearfully crackling."

It is well ascertained that storm-clouds of great intensity have polarity in the different portions, and that in the less intense magneto-electrical climate of England isolated showers are often of this character--the polarity existing in rings. Showers are doubtless thus found with us. Mr.

Wise got into one of them; see his description (Theory and Practice of Aeronautics page 240).

I have, in another place, alluded to the upward attraction of the dust beneath the advance condensation of a shower. Jenner alludes to it in the following lines:

"The whirling winds the _dust_ obeys, And in the rapid eddy plays."

So Virgil:

"Light chaff and leaflets, _flitting, fill the air_, And sportive feathers circle on the lake."

All these are electrical.

In England, where the action of such isolated clouds is less intense, the different electricities in different portions of the cloud, whose opposite and changing action produce all the phenomena, the condensation, the cold and congelation, the currents, etc., have been accurately ascertained. We can not get into the situation occupied by Mr. Wise. But every man may observe these _intestine motions_ occasionally, in the advance condensation of an isolated thunder-shower, in front of, but near the smooth line of falling rain. They are more lateral than upward or downward, and are often exceedingly rapid in movement.

I have said that hail has often been found to fall from particular and well-defined portions of a cloud, and rain from the other portions, the hail being positive, and rain negative. An instance of very striking character may be found in Espy's Philosophy of Storms (Introduction, page xx.) Doubtless in all cases thunder-showers, which are isolated and distinct, have opposite electricity in different portions, to whose active agency all the phenomena are owing. And the return of electricity to the earth in the rain explains the greater fertilizing effect of the latter compared With all artificial watering. He was a true philosopher who attempted to stimulate vegetation by electricity.

Sounds may sometimes aid the observer in doubtful cases in foretelling the weather. The roar of the surf, or breaking of the waves on the sh.o.r.e, when great bodies of water are disturbed by a precedent storm-wind, often heard before the wind is perceived on the land, I have already alluded to. And thus Virgil:

"When storms are brooding--in the _leeward gulf_ Dash the swelled waves; the mighty mountains pour A harsh, dull murmur; far along the beach Rolls the deep rushing roar."

The moaning or whistling of the wind all have noticed. It is not uncommon to hear the expression, "The wind sounds like rain." Jenner says:

"The _hollow_ winds begin to blow."

And Virgil:

"The _whispering_ grove Betrays the gathering elemental strife."

This whispering is the motion of the leaves; and they are often stirred by a peculiar motion which is not that of wind. Sometimes every leaf upon a tree may be seen _vibrating_ with an _upward and downward_ motion, when there is not wind enough to stir a twig. This interesting phenomenon is electrical. Trees, and all vegetables, confessedly discharge electricity, and such discharges move the leaves, when very active.

With us, sounds can be heard more distinctly from the east or south, before storms, according to the character of the coming wind. Howard mentions an instance when he heard carriages five miles off. Steamboat paddles, rail-road cars, and other sounds, are often heard a great distance. The distance at which the now common steam-whistle is heard, and the direction, is not an unimportant auxiliary indication of the weather.

Howard attributes these peculiar phenomena to the "_sounding board_," made by the _stratum of cloud_; but sounds may be heard from the north-west, when there is no condensation, and the wind is from that quarter, and also from the east when it is not cloudy; and in a level country the village bells often tell the direction of the current of air just over our heads when we do not feel it at the surface. The wind is undoubtedly moving in a rapid, and perhaps invisible current, not far above us. If from the east or south, it betokens rain; if from the western quarter, fair weather.

The conduct of the different animals furnish a considerable portion of the signs alluded to by Virgil and Jenner, and are never unimportant auxiliary evidence of the approaching changes, whether from dry to wet, or wet to dry.

The observer will find, in the conduct of our birds and animals, especially those which are not domestic, ample evidence of the truth of the descriptions of Virgil. He denies the animals and birds foresight, but he does not seem to have observed that the swallow leaves for the south as soon as the _autumnal_ change begins to be felt, and in August; nor the evident sagacity of other _migratory_ birds. They do not act from the "_varying impulse_" produced by an actual state of things, but a knowledge or apprehension of those which are to come. This is nothing more or less than foresight. So foresight tends to prudence and skill, and they exercise both, and with reference to the future. The goldfinch does not build her nest in the hole of the tree, or in the crotch of the limb; but _hangs it_ with _exquisite skill_ on the slender _waving, outward branch_, where no animal, or larger bird, or any depredator, can be sustained. She is not more timid than others; why does she invariably thus build? What makes her "_impulses_" differ from those of other birds, and always in the _same manner_?

Jenner, too, has grouped, in admirably descriptive language, many of the peculiarities exhibited by animals and birds before approaching storms, some of which exhibit foresight, and others not.

Perhaps the rooster, who keeps ceaseless watch over his harem, is the most reliable weather-watcher we have. In my earlier days, when it was the practice to keep valuable birds of the kind much longer than it now is, and they had opportunity to become _experienced_, it was interesting to observe how closely they watched the weather. I well remember a venerable chanticleer, who, perched on the tree among his hens, would always foretell the coming storm of the morrow, by sounding forth _in the evening_, and _often_, his defiant note. Such note in the evening was invariable evidence of foul weather. And during the night, their earlier and more frequent crowing is often indicative of it. It is, however, in the earlier part of the day, in doubtful cases, that no inconsiderable reliance may be placed on their sagacity. Often, when a storm is gathering in the forenoon, they will announce it by an almost incessant crowing. The habits of an _experienced_, old-fashioned bird, of this kind, will well repay attention; but I can not answer for the Shanghai and other _fancy breeds_.

Jenner says:

"The leech disturbed, is newly risen Quite to the summit of his prison."

Few have had, or will have, opportunities to observe this, but it is strikingly true. It is difficult to conceive how mere condensation, from an increase of vapor in the atmosphere, should be foreseen by the leech in his watery prison. It is obvious, I think, there is an electric change which reaches him, as it does the whole animal creation, the once broken bones, and the joints of Aunt Betty. Thus much of the philosophy of signs.

_The barometer_ is a useful instrument, in connection with observations of the other phenomena. It is especially useful to the sailor, as its indications relative to the winds are much the most certain. But it is not, _alone_, to be relied upon. This is well settled, although the reasons for it have not been understood. Why it should rise sometimes before storms, in opposition to the general rule--or fall at others without rain--or rise occasionally during the heaviest gales, has been a mystery, and impaired the confidence in its accuracy and usefulness even of the cla.s.s of philosophers of whom Sir George Harvey spoke, in the sentence quoted in the introduction. But, as I have already intimated, it is all very intelligible.