The instructions of the President of the United States to the Philippine Commission, dated April 7, 1900, direct as follows, viz.:--"In dealing with the uncivilized tribes of the Islands the Commission shall adopt the same course followed by Congress in permitting the tribes of our North American Indians to maintain their tribal organizations and government, and under which many of those tribes are now living in peace and contentment, surrounded by a civilization to which they are unable or unwilling to conform."

From the American point of view, but not from the Moro way of looking at things, an apparent state of anarchy prevailed everywhere; but the Sultans and the _Dattos_ took very good care not to tolerate what, in Europe, one would term anarchy, tending to subvert the local rule. There is no written code of Moro justice. If a Moro stole a buffalo from another, and the case were brought before the judge, this functionary and the local chief would, by custom, expect to make some profit for themselves out of the dispute. The thief would have to pay a fine to the headman or go into slavery, but having no money he would have to steal it to purchase his freedom. The buffalo being the object of dispute would be confiscated, and to be even with the defendant for the loss of the buffalo, the plantiff would lop off the defendant's head if he were a man of means and could afford to pay 105 pesos fine for his revenge.

The real difficulty was, and still is, that there is no Sultan, or _Datto_, of very extended authority to lay hold of and subdue, and whose defeat or surrender would entail the submission of a whole district or tribe. The work of subjection has to be performed piecemeal among the hundreds of _Dattos_, each of whom, by established custom, can only act for himself and his own retainers, for every _Datto_ would resent, at the risk of his life, any dictation from another. All this is extremely irritating to the white commander, who would prefer to bring matters to a definite crisis by one or more decisive contests, impossible of realization, however, in Mindanao or Sulu Islands.

Such was the condition of affairs in the southern extremity of the Archipelago when it was decided to appoint a Maj.-General to command it and create a semi-independent government for its local administration. Maj.-General Leonard Wood [252] was happily chosen for this arduous and delicate task, and on July 25, 1903, he took up his appointment, holding it for about two years, when he was transferred to Manila to command the Division in succession to Maj.-General Henry C. Corbin.

This region, now called the _Moro Province_, was established under Philippine Commission Act No. 787 of June 1, 1903 (which came into effect on July 15 following), and includes all Mindanao [253] except the larger portion of Misamis Province and all Surigao Province (N. and E.), which are under civil government, [254] the Jolo (Sulu) Archipelago, the Tawi Tawi group, and all the islands south of Lat. 8 N., excepting therefrom Palauan (Paragua) and Balabac Islands and the islands immediately adjacent thereto, but including the Island of Cagayan de Jolo. The seat of government is at Zamboanga, the headquarters of the military district, whose commander (Maj.-General Wood) acted in the dual capacity (but not _ex-officio_) of military commander and President of the Legislative Council of the Moro Province, which was organized September 2, 1903, and is composed as follows, viz.:--

Legislative Council Emolument

President, the Provincial Governor $6,000 gold (if he be a civilian). [255]

Provincial Secretary Not exceeding Provincial Treasurer $4,000 gold Provincial Attorney Provincial Superintendent of Schools Provincial Engineer

The Council has power to enact laws "by authority of and subject to annulment or amendment by the Philippine Commission," and four members of the six const.i.tute a quorum for legislative action. The Provincial Governor is responsible, and must report from time to time to the Gov.-General of the Philippines. The province is sub-divided into five governmental districts, and one sub-district under governors and lieut.-governor respectively. [256]

Districts Emolument of Governor

Zamboanga (including Basilan Is.) Jolo (sulu) (including Tawi Tawi group) Lanao (including Yligan and Lake Lanao) Not exceeding $3,500 Cottabato (including Polloc) gold if he be a civilian.

Davao (including Catil)

Dapitan (a sub-district of Zamboanga) Not exceeding $2,000 gold, if he be a civilian.

Each district is controlled by a District Council composed of the governor, the secretary, and the treasurer. At present all the district governors are army officers.

Section 15 of the above Act No. 787 provides that governors and secretaries of districts must learn and pa.s.s an examination in the dialects of their localities within 18 months after taking office, or be subject to dismissal.

Under Philippine Commission Act No. 82, ent.i.tled "The Munic.i.p.al Code,"

amended in its application to the Moro Province by the Legislative Council of the Moro Province Act No. 35, of January 27, 1904, the Moro districts and sub-districts are furthermore sub-divided in the following manner, viz.:--

_Munic.i.p.alities_ are established in the district or sub-district capital towns, and wherever there is a population sufficiently large and enlightened to be ent.i.tled to munic.i.p.al rights. [257] A president (mayor), vice-president, or councillor must be between twenty-six and sixty-five years of age, and must intelligently speak, read, and write Spanish, English, or the princ.i.p.al local dialect. Ecclesiastics, soldiers in active service, and persons receiving emolument from public funds are debarred from these offices. Every munic.i.p.al officer must give a bond with two or more sureties equal to at least half of the amount of annual funds which will probably pa.s.s through his hands. The maximum salary of a president (mayor) is P1,200, and that of munic.i.p.al secretary P600. Certain other officers are also paid, but the vice-presidency and councillorships are honorary posts. A person elected to office by the people is not permitted to decline it, except for certain reasons defined in the code, subject to a maximum penalty of six months' imprisonment. The mayor's symbol of office is a cane with a silver k.n.o.b, plated ferrule, and black cord and ta.s.sels.

Natives whose habits and social condition will not yet permit their inclusion in a munic.i.p.ality are segregated into _Tribal Wards_ [258]

(Legislative Council Act No. 39, of February 19, 1904). The headman is generally the chief recognized by his race or people as such, and is immediately responsible to the district governor by whom he is appointed. His annual salary ranges from P240 to P1,800, and his badge of office is a baldric of red leather with a metal disc, bearing an impression of the Moro Province seal. He and his advisory council perform the usual munic.i.p.al functions on a minor scale, and are permitted to "conform to the local customs of the inhabitants, unless such customs are contrary to law or repugnant to the usages or moral sense of civilized peoples."

A Tribal Ward is furthermore divided into _Tribal Ward Districts_. The district headman is the deputy of the tribal ward headman to whom he is immediately responsible. His annual salary ranges from P96 to P600, and his badge of office is a baldric of yellow canvas with a metal disc as mentioned above. The tribal ward headman's district deputies together const.i.tute the police force of the whole ward. Tribal ward headmen and their district deputies are not required to give bond. At any time, on certain conditions, a member of a tribal ward can apply for full citizenship in a munic.i.p.ality. In short, the governmental system adopted is intended to raise the native progressively from savagery to munic.i.p.al life.

The sources of _Revenue_ are briefly as follows, viz:--

_Provincial._--Property tax (7/8 per cent. of a.s.sessed value), industrial, cedula (poll tax of 1 peso for each male over 18 years), stamps, court fees, fines, sales of supplies to munic.i.p.alities, and forestry collection.

_Munic.i.p.al._--Ownership and transfer of cattle, rents and profits, licences, fines and carts.

_Customs Revenues_ in the five ports of entry, viz.:--Jolo, Zamboanga, Cottabato, Sia.s.si, and Bongao.

The Summary of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, stands thus:--

Revenue

Provincial Taxes and Forestry payments P114,713.66 Customs Revenue 222,664.39 ---------- P337,378.05

Expenditure

Provincial P174,361.70 Appropriated for Public Works 26,181.76 Customs Expenses 53,170.62 Balance available 83,663.97 ---------- P337,378.05

The maintenance of the Constabulary Force, Post Office Department, and Courts of First Instance in this Province is an Insular Government charge.

The revenue collected within the province (including the customs receipts) is spent therein. No remittance of funds is made to the Insular Treasury, but provincial accounts are subject to Insular Government audit, and have to be rendered to Manila.

The troops a.s.signed to this command are as follows, viz. [259]:--

Armed Forces in the Moro Province. Present and Absent.

Officers. Troops.

Regular troops [260] 236 3,766 Contract and Dental Surgeons and attached Staff 25 -- Total American forces 261 3,766 Native troops 11 543

Total Strength, Military District 272 4,309 Philippine Constabulary (Moro and Christian mixed) under Civil Government orders 22 530 --- ----- 294 4,839

On General Wood's recommendation, the Bates Agreement (_vide_ p. 571) was rescinded on the ground that it was an obstacle to good government. In truth, the Sultan of Sulu was probably quite as unable as he was unwilling to carry out its provisions. However, under Philippine Commission Act No. 1259 (amended by Act No. 1320 of April 12, 1905), certain small annual money allowances are made to the present Sultan of Sulu and his princ.i.p.al advisers.

In Mindanao, trouble again arose on the east sh.o.r.e of Lake Lanao, and an expedition was organized to march against the Taracas, who were, however, only temporarily subdued. Defiant messages were sent by the _Dattos_, and General Wood decided to conduct operations in person. According to private information given to me by officers in Mindanao some months after the battle, immense slaughter was inflicted on this tribe, whose _cottas_ were annihilated, and they were utterly crushed for the time being. About the beginning of 1904 the depredations of the Moros in the upper valley of the Cottabato River were revolting beyond all toleration. Cottabato town was pillaged under the leadership of Datto Ali and of his brother, Datto Djimbangan. In March an expedition invested the Serenaya territory in the Cottabato district and operated from the 4th to the 14th of that month without any American casualties. Datto Ali's fort at Kudarangan was taken and destroyed. [261] This formidable stronghold is described by General Wood thus:--"It was larger than twenty of the largest _cottas_ of the Lake region or Sulu, and would have easily held a garrison of four or five thousand men. It was well located, well built, well armed, and amply supplied with ammunition. There were embrasures for 120 pieces of artillery. Eighty-five pieces were captured, among them many large cannon of from 3 inches to 5 1/2 inches calibre. The other pieces in the work, small _lantacas_, were carried off or thrown into the river"

(_vide_ First Annual Report of the Moro Province).

Datto Ali thenceforth became a fugitive with some 60 armed followers and about a hundred others whom he pressed into his service as carriers. After the battle, Datto Djimbangan, Ali's brother, was taken unawares at his ranche by a detachment of American troops. He was conducted as a prisoner to Cottabato, and in February, 1905, he was transferred to the Zamboanga jail to await his trial for sedition and rebellion. Again the Taracas ventured on a series of attacks on the American military posts in the locality. A body of troops was despatched there in March, and after ten days' operations this tribe was routed and dispersed, the American casualties being two men killed, one drowned, 10 wounded, and one officer slightly wounded. On May 8 a party of 39 men and two officers, reconnoitring about Simbalan, up the Cottabato Valley, was attacked, 13 men being killed, two taken prisoners, six wounded, and the two officers killed. It would appear that the guides were conducting the party safely, when a lieutenant insisted on taking another route and landed his troops in a plateau covered with _cogon_ (pampas-gra.s.s) about eight feet high. On emerging from this they all got into a stream, where the Moros suddenly fell upon them. The punitive Simpetan Expedition immediately set out for that district and successfully operated from the 13th to the 28th of May without any American casualties. Datto Ali, who was again on the warpath, is the son-in-law of old Datto Piang, the terror of the neighbourhood in his younger days and also just after the evacuation by the Spaniards. Ali declared that he would not yield to the Americans one iota of his independence, or liberate his slaves, and swore vengeance on all who went in his pursuit. Being the hereditary _Datto_, the inhabitants of the valley generally sympathized with him, at least pa.s.sively. In the latter half of 1904, constant endeavour was made to effect the capture of this chieftain, whilst old Datto Piang, the son of a Chinaman with a keen eye to business, supplied the Americans with baggage-carriers at a peso a day per man for the troops sent to hunt down his refractory son-in-law. Active operations were sustained against him, and from the military posts of Malabang (formerly a Moro slave-market) and Parang-Parang on the Illana Bay coast there were continually small punitive parties scouring the district here and there. At the former camp I was the guest of the genial Colonel Philip Reade, in command of the 23rd Infantry, when Lieutenant C. R. Lewis was brought in wounded from a Cottabato River sortie. Colonel Reade, whose regiment had had about the roughest work of any in the Island, had certainly inspired his men with the never-know-when-you-are-beaten spirit, for the report of a reverse set them all longing to be the chosen ones for the next party. But up to July, 1905, Datto Ali had been able to elude capture, although General Wood personally conducted operations against him a year before, establishing his headquarters at Cabacsalan, near the Lake Ligusan.

The most ferocious and arrogant Mindanao tribes occupy regions within easy access of the coast. Perhaps their character is due to their having led more adventurous lives by land and sea for generations, plundering the tribes of the interior and making slave raids in their _vintas_ on the northern islands and christian native coast settlements. In the centre of the Island and around the mountainous region of the Apo the tribes are more peaceful and submissive, without desire or means for warfare. Many of the Bagobo tribe (which I have twice visited), in the neighbourhood of Davao, have come down to settle in villages under American protection, paying only an occasional visit to their tribal territory to make a human sacrifice.

In Basilan Island, a dependency of Zamboanga, about 13 miles distant, Datto Pedro Cuevas accepted the new situation, and under his influence peace was a.s.sured among the large Moro population of that island. The history of this man's career bristles with stirring episodes. Born in 1845, of Tagalog parentage, he started life as a Cavite highwayman, but was captured and deported to the agricultural colony of San Ramon, near Zamboanga, where he, with other convicts, attacked and killed three of the European overseers, and Cuevas escaped to Basilan Island. After innumerable difficulties, involving the conquest of a score of villages, he gained the control of a large number of Yacan Moros and became a sort of chief. Some years afterwards the Moros organized an attack on the Christians at Zamboanga and Isabela de Basilan, and Cuevas offered to save the Spaniards on condition of receiving a full pardon. Two Spaniards were accordingly sent as hostages to Cuevas' camp, and after Isabela was freed of the enemy he came to see the Spanish governor. There were several Spaniards present at the interview, and it is related that one of them let slip a phrase implying doubt as to Cuevas' worthiness for pardon, whereupon the undaunted chief remarked, "Sir, I thought I had won my liberty, seeing that, but for me, you would not be alive to accord it." Thenceforth he was always a reliable ally of the Spaniards against Moro incursions. In 1882 Cuevas was opposed by an arrogant Sulu chief, Datto Calun, who challenged him to single combat, and Cuevas having slain his adversary, the tribe of the vanquished warrior, admiring the conqueror's valour, proclaimed him their _Datto_, which t.i.tle was acknowledged by Datto Aliudi, the claimant to the Sulu Sultanate. On July 6, 1904, his graceful daughter Urang was married, with Mahometan rites, to a twenty-one-year-old Spanish half-caste, Ramon Laracoechea, who was introduced to me by his father, a very pleasant Vizcayan, resident in the Island since 1876. Educated in Manila, the son speaks English, Spanish, Yacano and Joloano. The festivities lasted for several days, some Americans being among the invited guests. Shortly after this event the _Datto_, at the age of fifty-nine years, ended his adventurous career in this world, regretted by all. In expectation of the demise of Datto Cuevas, which was antic.i.p.ated months before, there were three aspirants to the coming vacant dattoship in the persons of the son-in-law, Ramon, Cuevas' nephew, and an American of humble origin and scant education who had married a Zamboanguena woman.

In Sulu Island social conditions were most deplorable. Under the Bates Agreement the Moros became turbulent, and even attempted to take Jolo town by a.s.sault. In August, 1903, General Wood went there, and the _Dattos_ having been invited to meet him, quite a crowd of them came, accompanied by about 600 fighting-men in a splendid fleet of armed _vintas_ (war-canoes). Precautions had to be taken against possible treachery, and a company of troops was brought into the town in readiness for any event. The object of the meeting was to discuss the respective limits of the _Dattos'_ spheres, but owing to the haughty, insolent tone of the chiefs, nothing definite was arrived at. When they were invited to state their claims, they arrogantly replied, "We have no information to give. You say you are going to define our limits--well, what have you to tell us? We come to listen, not to talk." Some chiefs, however, feigned to offer their submission, and all was apparently quiet for a time.

Major Hugh L. Scott (14th Cavalry) was then appointed (in September) to the government of that district. The Sultan being too weak to control his subordinates, many of them rallied their men and independently defied all interference with their old mode of living and rule. The Sultan, not unnaturally, was averse to ceding his sovereign rights to any one, and he and his _Dattos_ obstructed, as far as they could, the Americans' endeavours to better the conditions of the people. Every few days a _juramentado_ (_vide_ pp. 146, 150) would enter the town and attack a white man with his _barong_ in broad daylight. There was nothing furtive in his movements, no hiding under cover to take his victim unawares, but a straight, bold frontal attack. _Barong_ in hand, a Moro once chased a soldier though the street, upstairs into a billiard-room, and down the other steps, where he was shot dead by a sentinel. At another time a _juramentado_ obtained access into the town by crawling through a drain-pipe, and chased two soldiers until he was killed. Many Americans were wounded in the streets of Jolo, but the aggressors were always pursued to death. Petty hostilities, attacks and counter-attacks, the sallies of punitive parties to avenge some violence committed, and the necessity for every individual in the town, civil or military, being armed and always alert, made life there one of continual excitement and emotion.

In November, 1903, the att.i.tude of the _Dattos_ became very menacing. Datto Andong actually cut a trench just outside the walled town of Jolo as a base of operations against the Americans. It was evident that an important rising of chiefs was contemplated. Major Scott having called upon the biggest chief, Panglima [262] Ha.s.san, to present himself and account for the murder of an American survey party, he came with a large force, estimated at about 4,000, well armed, as far as the town walls. He said he wanted to enter the town with a suite of only 700 armed men, including his subordinate _Dattos_. Finally Major Scott agreed to his entry with 70 warriors, but still the position was threatening with Ha.s.san's army in the vicinity. During the interview Panglima Ha.s.san appeared quite friendly; indeed, whilst he and the major were riding together, the chief, perceiving that his host was unarmed, gallantly remarked, "As you are without arms I will relinquish mine also," and at once took off his _barong_ and handed it to his attendant. In the meantime Major Scott had sent a request to General Wood for more troops, but the general, who had only just finished his Taraca operations, replied that he would come to Jolo himself. Almost simultaneously with his arrival in Zamboanga the general had the satisfaction to receive a message from the Taraca _Datto_ offering his submission, and asking to be judged according to the Koran. On General Wood's arrival with troops in Jolo a demand was made on Panglima Ha.s.san to surrender. After protracted negotiations and many insolent messages from Ha.s.san, the general led his troops down to Lake Seite, where an engagement took place, leaving 60 dead Moros on the field. Panglima Ha.s.san, pursued from place to place, lost many warriors at every halt, the total being estimated at 400 to 500. _Cottas_ were razed to the ground, and the notorious Panglima Ha.s.san himself was captured on November 14, with a loss, so far, of one soldier killed and five wounded on the American side. Panglima Ha.s.san was being escorted into Jolo town by Major Scott and other officers when suddenly the chief, pointing towards a native-built house, begged the major to save his family. Moved by compa.s.sion and influenced by Ha.s.san's previous friendly att.i.tude, the major generously consented, and as they all approached the entrance, in an instant out rushed the "family"--a mob of armed Moros, who attacked the officers whilst the Panglima made his escape. Poor Major Scott was so badly cut about on his hands that he had to go into hospital for four months, and I noticed that he had had one left-hand finger and two right-hand half-fingers amputated. Unable to handle any kind of weapon, in March, 1904, he led his troops against the cunning _Datto_, who sent out a large body of fighting-men to meet him. After several attacks were repelled, Panglima Ha.s.san took to flight, his followers all the time decreasing in numbers until, with only 80 men, the chief sought refuge in his _cotta_ at Pang-Pang, the strongest fortress in the Island. Breaches were made in it, and Ha.s.san fled for his life on a swift pony, with only two retainers, to the crater of an extinct volcano, which was quickly surrounded by the Americans. Each time a head appeared above the crater edge a volley was fired, but the wounded chief still bravely held out and hit some soldiers before he died, riddled by bullets, on March 4.

Again, in May, 1905, Datto Pala, of Sulu Island, with a large following, threatened Jolo town, and General Wood personally led the expedition against this chief. Eight miles from Maybun the Moros had dug pits and placed wires to impede the Americans' advance, but, notwithstanding these obstacles, the enemy was vigorously attacked and surrounded near the Maybun Lake, three miles from the town. After several days' desperate fighting the _cotta_ of Lumbo was captured, and the _Datto_ and his men were vanquished, the losses being about seven Americans killed, about 20 wounded, and over 250 Moros killed.

In June, 1904, Datto Ambutong had a dispute with another about the possession of some property, and on Major Scott being appealed to in the matter, he ordered Ambutong to appear before him in Jolo for a _bichara_ (judicial inquiry). The _Datto_, in a sulky mood, at first refused to come, but on further pressure he changed his mind. Early in the morning of the appointed day a friendly chief, Datto Timbang, came into town with four retainers, all armed, to see the Governor. Major Scott, whose guest I was, kindly invited me to the interview, during which it transpired that Datto Timbang had heard Ambutong declare he would come to the _bichara_, but he would not leave it without taking heads. Datto Timbang added that he too desired to attend the _bichara_ with his bodyguard, resolved to slay Ambutong if he observed any threatening move on his part. The major made no objection, and at the appointed hour four of us--my gallant host, Major Barbour, Captain Charles and myself--went to the _bichara_ at the Governor's office in town. The Governor (i.e., the major) sat at his desk, and we other three took seats just behind him. Before us were the Datto Ambutong, his opponent in the question at issue, and, a yard off him, the friendly Datto Timbang and his followers, each with his hand on his _barong_, ready to cut down Ambutong at a stroke if need be. Whilst the case was being heard, Hadji Butu, the Sultan's Prime Minister, and Sultan Tattara.s.sa, of Paragua Island, the latter afflicted with _locomotor ataxy_, came in, saluted us all, and took seats. The business ended, Datto Ambutong rose from his stool, gave his hand to the major, and then walked to the back of him to salute us. I thought I should like to handle the beautiful _barong_ which was to have served him in taking heads. The _Datto_ complaisantly allowed me to draw it from the sheath and pa.s.s it round to my friends. Sharp as a razor, it was the finest weapon of the cla.s.s I had ever touched. The handle was of carved ivory and Camagon wood (_vide_ p. 314), the whole instrument being valued at quite $100. Datto Timbang was watching, and the occasion was not a propitious one for taking christian blood.

The following translation of a letter which Major Hugh L. Scott courteously gave me will serve to ill.u.s.trate how lightly human life is appreciated by the Moro.