Hills 4. Sub-Himalaya, 2000-5000 feet.

5. Temperate Himalaya, 5000-11,000 feet.

6. Alpine Himalaya, 11,000-16,000 feet.

Of course a flora does not fit itself into compartments, and the changes of type are gradual.

~Panjab Dry Plain.~--The affinities of the flora of the Panjab plains south of the Salt Range and the submontane tract are, especially in the west, with the desert areas of Persia, Arabia, and North Africa, though the spread of ca.n.a.l irrigation is modifying somewhat the character of the vegetation. The soil and climate are unsuited to the growth of large trees, but adapted to scrub jungle of a drought-resisting type, which at one time covered very large areas from the Jamna to the Jhelam. The soil on which this spa.r.s.e scrub grew is a good strong loam, but the rainfall was too scanty and the water-level too deep to admit of much cultivation outside the valleys of the rivers till the labours of ca.n.a.l engineers carried their waters to the uplands. East of the Sutlej the Bikaner desert thrusts northwards a great wedge of sandy land which occupies a large area in Bahawalpur, Hissar, Ferozepur, and Patiala. Soil of this description is free of forest growth, and the monsoon rainfall in this part of the province is sufficient to encourage an easy, but very precarious, cultivation of autumn millets and pulses. The great Thal desert to the south of the Salt Range between the valleys of the Jhelam and the Indus has a similar soil, but the scantiness of the rainfall has confined cultivation within much narrower limits. Between the Sutlej and the Jhelam the uplands between the river valleys are known locally as Bars. The largest of the truly indigenous trees of the Panjab plains are the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata) and the th.o.r.n.y _kikar_ (Acacia Arabica). The latter yields excellent wood for agricultural implements, and fortunately it grows well in sour soils. Smaller th.o.r.n.y acacias are the _nimbar_ or _raunj_ (Acacia leucophloea) and the _khair_ (Acacia Senegal). The dwarf tamarisk, _pilchi_ or _jhao_ (Tamarix dioica), grows freely in moist sandy soils near rivers. The scrub jungle consists mostly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), a near relation of the Acacias, _jal_ or _van_ (Salvadora oleoides), and the coral-flowered _karil_ or leafless caper (Capparis aphylla). All these show their desert affinities, the _jand_ by its long root and its thorns, the _jal_ by its small leathery leaves, and the _karil_ by the fact that it has managed to dispense with leaves altogether. The _jand_ is a useful little tree, and wherever it grows the natural qualities of the soil are good. The sweetish fruit of the _jal_, known as _pilu_, is liked by the people, and in famines they will even eat the berries of the leafless caper.

Other characteristic plants of the Panjab plains are under Leguminosae, the _khip_ (Crotalaria burhia), two Fa.r.s.etias (_farid ki buti_), and the _jawasa_ or camel thorn (Alhagi camelorum), practically leafless, but with very long and stout spines; under Capparidaceae several Cleomes, species of Corchorus (Tiliaceae), under Zygophyllaceae three Mediterranean genera, Tribulus, Zygophyllum, and f.a.gonia, under Solanaceae several Solanums and Withanias, and various salsolaceous Chenopods known as _lana_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 19. Banian or Bor trees.]

In the sandier tracts the _ak_ (Calotropis procera, N.O.

Asclepiadaceae), the _harmal_ (Peganum harmala, N.O. Rutaceae), and the colocynth gourd (Citrullus colocynthis, N.O. Cucurbitaceae), which, owing to the size of its roots, manages to flourish in the sands of African and Indian deserts, grow abundantly. Common weeds of cultivation are Fumaria parviflora, a near relation of the English fumitory, Silene conoidea, and two Spergulas (Caryophyllaceae), and Sisymbrium Irio (Cruciferae). A curious little Orchid, Zeuxine sulcata, is found growing among the gra.s.s on ca.n.a.l banks. The American yellow poppy, Argemone Mexicana, a noxious weed, has unfortunately established itself widely in the Panjab plain. Two trees of the order Leguminosae, the _shisham_ or _tali_ (Dalbergia Sissoo) and the _siris_ (Albizzia lebbek), are commonly planted on Panjab roads. The true home of the former is in river beds in the low hills or in ravines below the hills. But it is a favourite tree on roads and near wells throughout the province, and deservedly so, for it yields excellent timber. The _siris_ on the other hand is an untidy useless tree. The _kikar_ might be planted as a roadside tree to a greater extent. Several species of figs, especially the _pipal_ (Ficus religiosa) and _bor_ or banian (Ficus Indica) are popular trees.

~Salt Range and North-West Plains.~---Our second region may be taken as extending from the Pabbi hills on the east of the Jhelam in Gujrat to our administrative boundary beyond the Indus, its southern limit being the Salt Range. Here the flora is of a distinctly Mediterranean type.

Poppies are as familiar in Rawalpindi as they are in England or Italy, and Hypecoum proc.u.mbens, a curious Italian plant of the same order, is found in Attock. The abundance of Crucifers is also a Mediterranean feature. Eruca sativa, the oil-seed known as _taramira_ or _jamian_, which sows itself freely in waste land and may be found growing even on railway tracks in the Rawalpindi division, is an Italian and Spanish weed. Malcolmia strigosa, which spreads a reddish carpet over the ground, and Malcolmia Africana are common Crucifers near Rawalpindi. The latter is a Mediterranean species. The Salt Range genera Diplotaxis and Moricandia are Italian, and the peculiar Notoceras Canariensis found in Attock is also a native of the Canary Islands. Another order, Boraginaceae, which is very prominent in the Mediterranean region, is also important in the North-West Panjab, though the showier plants of the order are wanting. One curious Borage, Arnebia Griffithii, seems to be purely Asiatic. It has five brown spots on its petals, which fade and disappear in the noonday sunshine. These are supposed to be drops of sweat which fell from Muhammad's forehead, hence the plant is called _paighambari phul_ or the prophet's flower. Among Composites Calendulas and Carthamus oxyacantha or the _pohli_, a near relation of the Carthamus which yields the saffron dye, are abundant. Both are common Mediterranean genera. Silyb.u.m Marianum, a handsome thistle with large leaves mottled with white, extends from Britain to Rawalpindi.

Interesting species are Tulipa stellata and Tulipa chrysantha. The latter is a Salt Range plant, as is the crocus-like Merendera Persica, and the yellow Iris Aitchisoni. A curious plant found in the same hills is the cactus-like Boucerosia (N.O. Asclepiadaceae), recalling to botanists the more familiar Stapelias of the same order. Another leafless Asclepiad, Periploca aphylla, which extends westwards to Arabia and Nubia and southwards to Sindh, is, like Boucerosia, a typical xerophyte adapted to a very dry soil and atmosphere. The th.o.r.n.y Acacias, A. eburnea and A. modesta (vern. _phulahi_), of the low bare hills of the N.W. Panjab are also drought-resisting plants.

~Submontane Region.~--The Submontane region consists of a broad belt below the Siwaliks extending from the Jamna nearly to the Jhelam, and may be said to include the districts of Ambala, Karnal (part), Hoshyarpur, Kangra (part), Hazara (part), Jalandhar, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujrat (part). In its flora there is a strong infusion of Indo-Malayan elements. An interesting member of it is the Butea frondosa, a small tree of the order Leguminosae. It is known by several names, _dhak_, _chichra_, _palah_, and _palas_. Putting out its large orange-red flowers in April it ushers in the hot weather. It has a wide range from Ceylon to Bengal, where it has given its name to the town of Dacca and the battlefield of Pla.s.sy (Palasi). From Bengal it extends all the way to Hazara. There can be no doubt that a large part of the submontane region was once _dhak_ forest. Tracts in the north of Karnal--Chachra, in Jalandhar--Dardhak, and in Gujrat--Palahi, have taken their names from this tree. It coppices very freely, furnishes excellent firewood and good timber for the wooden frames on which the masonry cylinders of wells are reared, it exudes a valuable gum, its flowers yield a dye, and the dry leaves are eaten by buffaloes. A tree commonly planted near wells and villages in the submontane tract is the _dhrek_ (Melia azedarach, N.O. Meliaceae), which is found as far west as Persia and is often called by English people the Persian lilac. The _bahera_ (Terminalia belerica, N.O. Combretaceae), a much larger tree, is Indo-Malayan. Common shrubs are the _marwan_ (Vitex negundo, N.O.

Verbenaceae), Plumbago Zeylanica (Plumbaginaceae), the _bansa_ or _bhekar_ (Adhatoda vasica, N.O. Acanthaceae). The last is Indo-Malayan.

Among herbs Ca.s.sias, which do not occur in Europe, are common. The curious cactus-like Euphorbia Royleana grows abundantly and is used for making hedges.

~Sub-Himalaya.~--A large part of the Sub-Himalayan region belongs to the Siwaliks. The climate is fairly moist and subject to less extremes of heat and cold than the regions described above. A strong infusion of Indo-Malayan types is found and a noticeable feature is the large number of flowering trees and shrubs. Such beautiful flowering trees as the _simal_ or silk-cotton tree (Bombax Malabaric.u.m, N.O. Malvaceae), the _amaltas_ (Ca.s.sia fistula), Albizzia mollis and Albizzia stipulata, Erythrina suberosa, Bauhinia purpurea and Bauhinia variegata, all belonging to the order Leguminosae, are unknown in Europe, but common in the Indo-Malayan region. This is true also of Oroxylum Indic.u.m (N.O.

Bignoniaceae) with its remarkable long sword-like capsules, and of the _kamila_ (Mallotus Philippinensis), which abounds in the low hills, but may escape the traveller's notice as its flowers have no charm of form or colour. He will in spring hardly fail to observe another Indo-Malayan tree, the _dhawi_ (Woodfordia floribunda, N.O. Lythraceae) with its bright red flowers. Shrubs with conspicuous flowers are also common, among which may be noted species of Clematis, Capparis spinosa, Kydia calycina, Mimosa rubicaulis, Hamiltonia suaveolens, Caryopteris Wallichiana, and Nerium Oleander. The latter grows freely in sandy torrent beds. Rhus cotinus, which reddens the hillsides in May, is a native also of Syria, Italy, and Southern France. Other trees to be noticed are a wild pear (Pyrus pashia), the olive (Olea cuspidata), the _khair_ (Acacia catechu) useful to tanners, the _tun_ (Cedrela toona), whose wood is often used for furniture, the _dhaman_ (Grewia oppositifolia, N.O. Tiliaceae), and several species of fig. The most valuable products however of the forests of the lower hills are the _chir_ or _chil_ pine (Pinus longifolia), and a giant gra.s.s, the bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), which attains a height of from 20 to 40 feet.

Shrubs which grow freely on stony hills are the _sanattha_ or _mendru_ (Dodonaea viscosa, N.O. Sapindaceae), which is a valuable protection against denudation, as goats pa.s.s it by, the _garna_, which is a species of Carissa, and Plectranthus rugosus. Climbers are common. The great Hiptage madablota (N.O. Malpighiaceae), the Bauhinia Vahlii or elephant creeper, and some species of the parasitic Loranthus, deserve mention, also Acacia caesia, Pueraria tuberosa, Vallaris Heynei, Porana paniculata, and several vines, especially Vitis lanata with its large rusty leaves. Characteristic herbs are the sweet-scented Viola patrinii, the slender milkwort; Polygala Abyssinica, a handsome pea, Vigna vexillata, a borage, Trichodesma Indic.u.m, a balsam, Impatiens balsamina, familiar in English gardens, the beautiful delicate little blue Evolvulus alsinoides, the showy purple convolvulus, Ipomaea hederacea, and a curious lily, Gloriosa superba.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 20. Deodars and Hill Temple.]

~Temperate Himalaya.~--The richest part of the temperate Himalayan flora is probably in the 7500-10,000 zone. Above 10,000 feet sup-alpine conditions begin, and at 12,000 feet tree growth becomes very scanty and the flora is distinctly alpine. The _chir_ pine so common in sub-Himalayan forests extends up to 6500 feet. At this height and 1000 feet lower the _ban_ oak (Quercus incana), grey on the lower side of the leaf, which is so common at Simla, abounds. Where the _chil_ stops, the _kail_ or blue pine (Pinus excelsa), after the _deodar_ the most valuable product of Himalayan forests, begins. Its zone may be taken as from 7000 to 9000 feet. To the same zone belong the _kelu_ or _deodar_ (Cedrus Libani), the glossy leaved _mohru_ oak (Quercus dilatata), whose wood is used for making charcoal, and two small trees of the Heath order, Rhododendron arborea and Pieris ovalifolia. The former in April and May lightens up with its bright red flowers the sombre Simla forests. The _kharshu_ or rusty-leaved oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) affects a colder climate than its more beautiful glossy-leaved relation, and may almost be considered sub-alpine. It is common on Hattu, and the oaks there present a forlorn appearance after rain with funereal mosses dripping with moisture hanging from their trunks. The firs, Picea morinda, with its grey ta.s.sels, and Abies Pindrow with its dark green yew-like foliage, succeed the blue pine. Picea may be said to range from 8000 to 10,000 feet, and the upper limit of Abies is from 1000 to 2000 feet higher. These splendid trees are unfortunately of small commercial value. The yew, Taxus baccata, is found a.s.sociated with them. Between 5000 and 8000 feet, besides the oaks and other broad-leaved trees already noticed, two relations of the dogwood, Cornus capitata and Cornus macrophylla, a large poplar, Populus ciliata, a pear, Pyrus lanata, a holly, Ilex dipyrena, an elm and its near relation, Celtis australis, and species of Rhus and Euonymus, may be mentioned. Cornus capitata is a small tree, but it attracts notice because the heads of flowers surrounded by bracts of a pale yellow colour have a curious likeness to a rose, and the fruit is in semblance not unlike a strawberry. Above 8000 feet several species of maple abound. The _chinar_ or Plata.n.u.s orientalis, found as far west as Sicily, grows to splendid proportions by the quiet waterways of the Vale of Kashmir. The undergrowth in temperate Himalayan forests consists largely of barberries, Desmodiums, Indigoferas, roses, brambles, Spiraeas, Viburnums, honeysuckles with their near relation, Leycesteria formosa, which has been introduced into English shrubberies. The great vine, Vitis Himalayana, whose leaves turn red in autumn, climbs up many of the trees. Of the flowers it is impossible to give any adequate account. The flora is distinctly Mediterranean in type; the orders in Collett's _Flora Simlensis_ which are not represented in the Italian flora contain hardly more than 5 per cent. of the total genera. The plants included in some of these non-Mediterranean orders are very beautiful, for example, the Begonias, the Amphicomes (Bignoniaceae), Chirita bifolia and Platystemma violoides (Gesneraceae), and Hedychium (Scitamineae). More important members of the flora are species of Clematis, including the beautiful white Clematis montana, anemones, larkspurs, columbine, monkshoods, St John's worts, geraniums, balsams, species of Astragalus, Potentillas, Asters, ragworts, species of Cynoglossum, gentians and Swertias, Androsaces and primroses, Wulfenia and louseworts, species of Strobilanthes, Salvias and Nepetas, orchids, irises, Ophiopogon, Smilax, Alliums, lilies, and Solomon's seal. Snake plants (Arisaema) and their relation Sauromatum guttatum of the order Araceae are very common in the woods. The striped spathe in some species of Arisaema bears a curious resemblance to the head of a cobra uplifted to strike. Orchids decrease as one proceeds westwards, but irises are much more common in Kashmir than in the Simla hills. The Kashmir fritillaries include the beautiful Crown Imperial.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 21. Firs in Himalaya.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 22. Chinars.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 23. Rhododendron campanulatum.]

~Alpine Himalaya.~--In the Alpine Himalaya the scanty tree-growth is represented by willows, junipers, and birches. After 12,000 or 12,500 feet it practically disappears. A dwarf shrub, Juniperus recurva, is found clothing hillsides a good way above the two trees of the same genus. Other alpine shrubs which may be noticed are two rhododendrons, which grow on cliffs at an elevation of 10,000 to 14,000 feet, R.

campanulatum and R. lepidotum, Gaultheria nummularioides with its black-purple berry, and Ca.s.siope fastigiata, all belonging to the order Ericaceae. The herbs include beautiful primulas, saxifrages, and gentians, and in the bellflower order species of Codonopsis and Cyananthus. Among Composites may be mentioned the tansies, Saussureas, and the fine Erigeron multiradiatus common in the forest above Narkanda.

In the bleak uplands beyond the Himalaya tree-growth is very scanty, but in favoured localities willows and the pencil cedar, Juniperus pseudosabina, are found. The people depend for fuel largely on a h.o.a.ry bush of the Chenopod order, Eurotia ceratoides. In places a profusion of the red Tibetan roses, Rosa Webbiana, lightens up the otherwise dreary scene.

CHAPTER VII

FORESTS

~Rights of State in Waste.~--Under Indian rule the State claimed full power of disposing of the waste, and, even where an exclusive right in the soil was not maintained, some valuable trees, e.g. the _deodar_ in the Himalaya, were treated as the property of the Raja. Under the tenure prevailing in the hills the soil is the Raja's, but the people have a permanent tenant right in any land brought under cultivation with his permission. In Kulu the British Government a.s.serted its ownership of the waste. In the south-western Panjab, where the scattered hamlets had no real boundaries, ample waste was allotted to each estate, and the remainder was claimed as State property.

~Kinds of Forest.~--The lands in the Panjab over which authority, varying through many degrees from full ownership unburdened with rights of user down to a power of control exercised in the interests of the surrounding village communities, may be roughly divided into

(_a_) Mountain forests;

(_b_) Hill forests;

(_c_) Scrub and gra.s.s _Jangal_ in the Plains.

The first are forests of _deodar_, blue pine, fir, and oak in the Himalaya above the level of 5000 feet. The hill forests occupy the lower spurs, the Siwaliks in Hoshyarpur, etc., and the low dry hills of the north-west. A strong growth of _chir_ pine (Pinus longifolia) is often found in the Himalaya between 3000 and 5000 feet. Below 3000 feet is scrub forest, the only really valuable product being bamboo. The hills in the north-western districts of the Panjab and N.W.F. Province, when nature is allowed to have its way, are covered with low scrub including in some parts a dwarf palm (Nannorhops Ritchieana), useful for mat making, and with a taller, but scantier growth of _phulahi_ (Acacia modesta) and wild olive. What remains of the scrub and gra.s.s _jangal_ of the plains is to be found chiefly in the Bar tracts between the Sutlej and the Jhelam. Much of it has disappeared, or is about to disappear, with the advance of ca.n.a.l irrigation. Dry though the climate is the Bar was in good seasons a famous grazing area. The scrub consisted mainly of _jand_ (Prosopis spicigera), _jal_ (Salvadora oleoides), the _karil_ (Capparis aphylla) and the _farash_ (Tamarix articulata).

~Management and Income of Forests.~--The Forest Department of the Panjab has existed singe 1864, when the first Conservator was appointed. In 1911-12 it managed 8359 square miles in the Panjab consisting of:

Reserved Forests 1844 square miles Protected " 5203 " "

Uncla.s.sed " 1312 " "

It was also in charge of 235 square miles of reserved forest in the Hazara district of the N.W.F. Province, and of 364 miles of fine mountain forest in the native State of Bashahr. In addition a few reserved forests have been made over as grazing areas to the Military Department, and Deputy Commissioners are in charge of a very large area of uncla.s.sed forest.

No forest can be declared "reserved" or "protected" unless it is owned in whole or in part by the State. It is enough if the trees or some of them are the property of the Government. In order to safeguard all private rights a special forest settlement must be made before a forest can be declared to be "reserved." In the case of a protected forest it is enough if Government is satisfied that the rights of the State and of private persons have been recorded at a land revenue settlement. After deducting income belonging to the year 1909-10 realized in 1910-11, the average income of the two years ending 1911-12 was 81,805 (Rs.

1,227,082) and the average expenditure 50,954 (Rs. 764,309).

~Sources of Income.~--In the mountain forests the chief source of income is the _deodar_, which is valuable both for railway sleepers and as building timber. The blue pine is also of commercial value. _Deodar_, blue pine, and some _chir_ are floated down the rivers to depots in the plains. Firwood is inferior to cedar and pine, and the great fir forests are too remote for profitable working at present. There are fine mountain forests in Chitral, on the Safed Koh, and in Western Waziristan, but these have so far not even been fully explored. The value of the hill forests may be increased by the success which has attended the experimental extraction of turpentine from the resin of the _chir_ pine. The bamboo forests of Kangra are profitable. At present an attempt is being made to acclimatize several species of Eucalyptus in the low hills. The scrub _jangal_ in the plains yields good fuel. As the area is constantly shrinking it is fortunate that the railways have ceased to depend on this source of supply, coal having to a great extent taken the place of wood. To prevent shortage of fuel considerable areas in the tracts commanded by the new ca.n.a.ls are being reserved for irrigated forests. A forest of this cla.s.s covering an area of 37 square miles and irrigated from the Upper Bari Doab Ca.n.a.l has long existed at Changa Manga in the Lah.o.r.e district.

~Forests in Kashmir.~--The extensive and valuable Kashmir forests are mountain and hill forests, the former, which cover much the larger area yielding, _deodar_, blue pine, and firs, and the latter _chir_ pine. The total area exceeds 2600 square miles.

CHAPTER VIII

BEASTS, BIRDS, FISHES, AND INSECTS

~Fauna.~--With the spread of cultivation and drainage the Panjab plains have ceased to be to anything like the old extent the haunt of wild beasts and wild fowl. The lion has long been extinct and the tiger has practically disappeared. Leopards are to be found in low hills, and sometimes stray into the plains. Wolves are seen occasionally, and jackals are very common. The black buck (Antilope cerricapra) can still be shot in many places. The graceful little _c.h.i.n.kara_ or ravine deer (Gazella Bennetti) is found in sandy tracts, and the hogdeer or _parha_ (Cervus porcinus) near rivers. The _nilgai_ (Boselaphus tragocamelus) is less common. Monkeys abound in the hills and in ca.n.a.l-irrigated tracts in the Eastern districts, where their sacred character protects them from destruction, though they do much damage to crops. Peafowl are to be seen in certain tracts, especially in the eastern Panjab. They should not be shot where the people are Hindus or anywhere near a Hindu shrine.

The great and lesser bustards and several kinds of sand grouse are to be found in sandy districts. The grey partridge is everywhere, and the black can be got near the rivers. The _sisi_ and the _chikor_ are the partridges of the hills, which are also the home of fine varieties of pheasants including the _monal_. Quail frequent the ripening fields in April and late in September. Duck of various kinds abound where there are _jhils_, and snipe are to be got in marshy ground. The green parrots, crows, and vultures are familiar sights. Both the sharp-nosed (Garialis Gangetica, vern. _gharial_) and the blunt-nosed (Crocodilus pal.u.s.tris, vern. magar) crocodiles haunt the rivers. The fish are tasteless; the _rohu_ and _mahseer_ are the best. Poisonous snakes are the _karait_, the _cobra_, and Russell's viper. The first is sometimes an intruder into houses. Lizards and mongooses are less unwelcome visitors. White ants attack timber and ruin books, and mosquitoes and sandflies add to the unpleasant features of the hot weather. The best known insect pest is the locust, but visitations on a large scale are rare. Of late years much more damage has been done by an insect which harbours in the cotton bolls.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 24. Big game in Ladakh.

KEY: 1, 3, 7, 9, Chiru or Tibetan Antelope. 2, Argali or Ovis Ammon. 4, 6, 8, Bharal or Ovis nahura. 5, Yak or Bos grunniens. 10, 11, 12, Urial or Ovis Vignei. 13, Bear skin.]

~Game of the Mountains.~--If sport in the plains has ceased to be first rate, it is otherwise in the hills. Some areas and the heights at which the game is to be found are noted below:

(_a_) Goats and goat-antelopes:

1. Ibex (Capra Sibirica) 10,000-14,000 ft.

Kashmir, Lahul, Bashahr.

2. Markhor (Capra Falconeri). Kashmir, Astor, Gilgit, Suliman hills.