The book itself contains interesting accounts of yams, gourds, potatoes, p.r.i.c.kly pears, maize (of turkeys fed on maize he says, "If I should tell how big some of their turkeys are I think I should hardly be believed"), cotton, pepper and sugar. His dissertation on the making of sugar is one of the earliest accounts of the process. Of the "Maucaw tree" he writes that "the seeds being fully ripe are of a pure crimson or reddish colour apt to dye the skin with a touch so that it cannot quickly be washed off." The Red Indians used these seeds to dye their skins, and Hughes remarks, "were some Ladies acquainted with this Rarity, doubtless they would give much for it." The longest section of the book deals with the cacao tree, its fruit and the making of chocolate. Cacao kernels were used as tokens and cacao plantations were entailed property. "In Carthagena, New Spain and other adjacent places, they do not only entail their Cacao Walks or Orchards on their Eldest Sons, as their Right of Inheritance (as Lands here in England are settled on the next Heir), but these cacao kernels have been, and are in so great esteem with them, that they pa.s.s between man and man for any merchandise, in buying and selling in the Markets, as the most current silver Coyn; as I have been told and as some credible Writers do affirm." There is a notable description of the making of chocolate by the servants "before they go forth to work in the Plantations in a morning and without which they are not well able to perform their most laborious employments in the Plantations, or work with any great courage until eleven a clock, their usual time of going to Dinner." A detailed account of the preparation of the drink ends with this vivid picture: "and then taking it off the Fire they pour it out of the Pot into some handsome large Dish or Bason: and after they have sweetened it a little with Sugar, being all together and sitting down round about it like good Fellows, everyone dips in his Calabash or some other Dish, supping it off very hot." He describes all sorts of ways of using the chocolate, the best in his opinion being that of the "Maroonoes Hunters and such as have occasion to travel the Country." They made it into "lozanges," which "exceed a Scotch-man's provision of Oat-meal and Water, as much (in my opinion) as the best Ox-beef for strong stomacks exceeds the meanest food."

Chocolate, it will be remembered, became a very fashionable drink in England in the seventeenth century, but Hughes considers it inferior to the genuine stuff made in the Plantations. In fact, he cautions English people to procure their chocolate straight from Jamaica, and then to see themselves to the making of it according to his directions!

In spite of its impressive name, _The South-Sea Herbal containing the names, use, etc. of divers medicinal plants lately discovered by Pere L. Feuillee, one of the King of France's herbalists ... much desired and very necessary to be known of all such as now traffick to the South-Seas or reside in those parts_ (1715), is only eight pages long, five of which are devoted to figures of the plants. Nevertheless this now rare little pamphlet is valuable inasmuch as it is probably the first account in English of the medicinal plants of Peru and Chili.

The writer--James Petiver--began life by serving his apprenticeship to Mr. Feltham, apothecary to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London. He afterwards qualified as apothecary and became demonstrator of plants to the Society of Apothecaries. All his life he seems to have been rather a recluse, devoting his time to the study of natural history specimens sent him from all parts of the world. His herbarium, now in the Sloane Collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, is exceptionally interesting, for Petiver appears to have had friends in all parts of the world, mostly sea-captains, who took delight in sending him treasures. The value of his collection may be judged from the fact that shortly before his death, Sir Hans Sloane offered him 4000 for it. His _South-Sea Herbal_ is purely medicinal, except for an appeal to anyone living in Quito who "would be pleased to procure branches of the leaves of Jesuits' Bark or Quinquina with its Flowers and Fruit, which Favour should be acknowledged and more accurate Figures given of each if communicated to your humble servant." There is unfortunately now no copy extant of another of Petiver's pamphlets, _The Virtues of several Sovereign Plants found wild in Maryland with Remarks on them_. Apparently not many were printed, for there is a note to this effect at the end of the advertis.e.m.e.nt: "Divers of these Tracts are now so very scarce that of some of them there are not 20 left." Owing to the fact that nearly every page of ill.u.s.trations in Petiver's works is dedicated to some friend who had sent him specimens, we have preserved for us the record of his numerous correspondents. These dedications are very pleasant reading:--

"To ye memory of y{t} curious Naturalist and Learned Father, Geo Jos{ph} Camel for many Observations and Things sent me."

"To ye memory of my curious Friend Mr. Sam Browne, Surgeon at Madra.s.s, for divers Indian Plants, Sh.e.l.ls, Seeds, etc."

"To Mr. George Bouchere, Surgeon, For divers Minorca Plants, Seed, etc."

"To Mr. Alexander Bartlet, Surgeon, For divers Cape and Moca Plants, Sh.e.l.ls, etc."

"To Mr. George London, Late Gardiner to K. Will and Q.

Mary."

"To ye memory of Mr. Will{m} Browne, Surgeon, who Presented me w{th} Divers Plants, Sh.e.l.ls, etc."

"To His Hearty Friend, Mr. John Stocker, in grat.i.tude for divers Plants, Sh.e.l.ls, etc."

"To Mr. Claud Joseph, Geoffroy, Apothecary Chymist and Fellow of ye Academy Royall in Paris."

"To Mr. Charles Du-Bois, Treasurer of the East India Company."

"To the Honourable Dr. William Sherard, Consul of Smyrna."

"To Captain Jonathan Whicker for Divers Sh.e.l.ls from St.

Christophers."

"To his Curious Friend, Mr. John Smart, Surgeon, For Divers Plants, etc., from Hudson's Bay."

"To his kind Friend, Capt. George Searle for divers Antego Sh.e.l.ls, Coralls, etc."

"To Capt. Thomas Grigg at Antego in grat.i.tude for divers Insects, Sh.e.l.ls, etc."

"To that very obliging Gentlewoman, Madam Hannah Williams at Carolina."

FOOTNOTES:

[86] _Joyfull Newes out of the newe founde worlde wherein is declared the rare and singular vertues of diuerse and sundrie Hearbes, etc._ See Bibliography of English Herbals, p. 211. Nicolas Monardes was a Spanish doctor living in Seville and his book was written in 1569 (see p. 231).

[87] Published in London. See Bibliography, p. 217.

CHAPTER VI

JOHN PARKINSON, THE LAST OF THE GREAT ENGLISH HERBALISTS

"For truly from all sorts of Herbes and Flowers we may draw matter at all times not only to magnifie the Creator that hath given them such diversities of formes sents and colours, that the most cunning Worke man cannot imitate, and such vertues and properties, that although wee know many, yet many more lye hidden and unknowne, but many good instructions also to ourselves. That as many herbes and flowers with their fragrant sweet smels doe comfort, and as it were revive the spirits and perfume a whole house: even so such men as live vertuously, labouring to doe good and profit the Church of G.o.d and the Commonwealth by their paines or penne, doe as it were send forth a pleasing savour of sweet instructions, not only to that time wherein they live, and are fresh, but being drye, withered and dead, cease not in all after ages to doe as much or more."--JOHN PARKINSON, _Paradisus_, 1629.

The last of the great English herbalists was John Parkinson, the author of the famous _Paradisus_ and also of the largest herbal in the English language, _Theatrum Botanic.u.m_, which was published when the author was seventy-three. The latter was intended to be a complete account of medicinal plants and was the author's most important work, yet it is with the _Paradisus_ (strictly not a herbal, but a gardening book), that his name is popularly a.s.sociated. Of Parkinson himself we can learn very little. We know only that he was born in 1567, probably in Nottinghamshire, and that before 1616 he was practising as an apothecary and had a garden in Long Acre "well stored with rarities."[88] He was appointed Apothecary to James I., and after the publication of his _Paradisus_ in 1629 Charles I. bestowed on him the t.i.tle of Botanicus Regius Primarius. Amongst Parkinson's acquaintances mentioned in his books were the learned Thomas Johnson, who in 1633 emended and brought out a new edition of Gerard's _Herball_, John Tradescant,[89] the famous gardener, traveller and naturalist, and the celebrated physician, Sir Theodore Mayerne. Parkinson died in 1650 and was buried at St. Martin's in the Fields. There is a portrait of him in his sixty-second year prefixed to his _Paradisus_, and a small portrait by Marshall at the bottom of the t.i.tle-page of his _Theatrum Botanic.u.m_.

The full t.i.tle of Parkinson's _Paradisus_, which in the dedicatory letter to Queen Henrietta Maria he truly describes as "this Speaking Garden," is inscribed on a shield at the bottom of the frontispiece.

The first three words, "Paradisi in Sole," are a punning translation into Latin of his own surname.

At the top of the page is the Eye of Providence with a Hebrew inscription, and on each side a cherub symbolising the winds. In the centre is a representation of Paradise with Adam grafting an apple tree and Eve running downhill to pick up a pineapple. The flowers depicted are curiously out of proportion, for the tulip flower is a good deal larger than Eve's head, and cyclamen in Paradise seems to have grown to a height of at least five feet.

The most interesting feature of this elaborately ill.u.s.trated t.i.tle-page is the representation of the "Vegetable Lamb" growing on a stalk and browsing on the herbage round about it.[90] This records one of the most curious myths of the Middle Ages. The creature was also known as the Scythian Lamb and the Borametz or Barometz, a name derived from a Tartar word signifying "lamb." It was supposed to be at once a true animal and a living plant, and was said to grow in the territory of the "Tartars of the East," formerly called Scythia.

According to some writers, the lamb was the fruit of a tree, whose fruit or seed-pod, when fully ripe, burst open and disclosed a little lamb perfect in every way. This was the subject of the ill.u.s.tration, "The Vegetable Lamb plant," in Sir John Mandeville's book. Other writers described the lamb as being supported above the ground by a stalk flexible enough to allow the animal to feed on the herbage growing near. When it had consumed all within its reach the stem withered and the lamb died. This is the version ill.u.s.trated on Parkinson's t.i.tle-page. It was further reported that the lamb was a favourite food of wolves, but that no other carnivorous animals would attack it. This remarkable legend obtained credence for at least 400 years. So far as is known, the first mention of it in an English book is the account given by Sir John Mandeville, "the Knyght of Ingelond that was y bore in the toun of Seynt Albans, and travelide aboute in the worlde in many diverse countries to se mervailes and customes of countreis and diversiters of folkys and diverse shap of men and of beistis." It is in the chapter describing the curiosities he met with in the dominions of the "Cham" of Tartary that the pa.s.sage about the vegetable lamb occurs.[91] The origin of this extraordinary myth is undoubtedly to be found in the ancient descriptions of the cotton plant by Herodotus, Ctesias, Strabo, Pliny and others.[92] The following pa.s.sages in Herodotus and Pliny will suffice to show how easily the myth may have grown. "Certain trees bear for their fruit fleeces surpa.s.sing those of sheep in beauty and excellence"

(Herodotus). "These trees bear gourds the size of a quince which burst when ripe and display b.a.l.l.s of wool out of which the inhabitants make cloths like valuable linen" (Pliny).

[Ill.u.s.tration: t.i.tLE-PAGE OF PARKINSON'S "PARADISUS" (1629)]

In his _Theatrum Botanic.u.m_ Parkinson describes the "Scythian Lamb,"

and one gathers that he accepted the travellers' tales about it. "This strange living plant as it is reported by divers good authors groweth among the Tartares about Samarkand and the parts thereabouts rising from a seede somewhat bigger and rounder than a Melon seede with a stalk about five palmes high without any leafe thereon but onely bearing a certaine fruit and the toppe in forme resembling a small lambe, whose coate or rinde is woolly like unto a Lambe's skinne, the pulp or meat underneath, which is like the flesh of a Lobster, having it is sayed blood also in it; it hath the forme of an head hanging down and feeding on the gra.s.se round about it untill it hath consumed it and then dyeth or else will perish if the gra.s.se round about it bee cut away of purpose. It hath foure legges also hanging downe. The wolves much affect to feed on them."

The preface to the _Paradisus_ is singularly beautiful, being typical of the simple, devout-minded author, but it is too long to quote. The book itself is truly "a speaking garden," a tranquil, s.p.a.cious Elizabethan garden, full of the loveliness, colour and scent of damask, musk and many other roses; of lilies innumerable--the crown imperial, the gold and red lilies, the Persian lily ("brought unto Constantinople and from thence sent unto us by Mr. Nicholas Lete, a worthy Merchant and a lover of all faire flowers"), the blush Martagon, the bright red Martagon of Hungary and the lesser mountain lily. Of fritillaries of every sort--of which Parkinson tells us that "although divers learned men do by the name given unto this delightful plant think it doth in some things partake with a Tulipe or Daffodill; yet I, finding it most like unto a little Lilly, have (as you see here) placed it next unto the Lillies and before them." Of gay tulips, which were amongst his special favourites--"But indeed this flower, above many other, deserveth his true commendations and acceptance with all lovers of these beauties, both for the stately aspect and for the admirable varietie of colour, that daily doe arise in them,"--and of which he had a collection such as would be the glory of any garden--the tulip of Caffa, the greater red Bolonia tulip, the tulip of Candie, the tulip of Armenia, the Fool's Coat tulip, the Cloth of Silver tulip and others too numerous to mention. ("They are all now made denizens in our Gardens," he joyously tells us, "where they yield us more delight and more increase for their proportion by reason of their culture, than they did unto their owne naturals"). Of daffodils, crocuses and hyacinths in boundless profusion, amongst which are to be noted many pleasing names that we no longer use. Of asphodels, "which doe grow naturally in Spaine and France and from thence were first brought unto us to furnish our Gardens." Of many-coloured flags, which he calls by the prettier name of "flower de luce," and amongst which he gives pride of place "for his excellent beautie and raretie to the great Turkie Flower de luce." Of gladioli, cyclamen and anemones. Of the last-named he writes thus:--

"The Anemones likewise or Windeflowers are so full of variety and so dainty so pleasant and so delightsome flowers that the sight of them doth enforce an earnest longing desire in the mind of anyone to be a possessoure of some of them at the leaste. For without all doubt this one kind of flower, so variable in colours, so differing in form (being almost as many sortes of them double as single), so plentifull in bearing flowers and so durable in lasting and also so easie both to preserve and to encrease is of itselfe alone almost sufficient to furnish a garden with flowers for almost half the yeare. But to describe the infinite (as I may so say) variety of the colours of the flowers and to give each his true distinction and denomination it pa.s.seth my ability I confesse, and I thinke would grauell the best experienced in Europe." (Nevertheless he writes of about fifty varieties.) Of fragrant crane's-bills, bear's-ears, primroses and cowslips. Of violets, borage, marigolds, campions, snapdragons, columbines and lark's-heels (delphiniums). Of gillyflowers (why have we given up this old-fashioned English name?), and how pleasant is the mere reading of his list of varieties--"Master Bradshawe his daintie Ladie," "Ruffling Robin," "The Fragrant," "The Red Hulo," "John Witte his great tawny gillow flower," "l.u.s.tie Gallant," "The fair maid of Kent," "The Speckled Tawny." "But the most beautiful that ever I did see was with Master Ralph Tuggie,[93] the which gilliflower I must needes therefore call 'Master Tuggies Princesse,' which is the greatest and fairest of all these sorts of variable tawnies, being as large fully as the Prince or Chrystall, or something greater, standing comely and round, not loose or shaken, or breaking the pod as some other sorts will; the marking of the flower is in this manner: It is of a stamell colour, striped and marbled with white stripes and veines quite through every leafe, which are as deeply iagged as the Hulo: sometimes it hath more red then white, and sometimes more white then red, and sometimes so equally marked that you cannot discern which hath the mastery; yet which of these hath the predominance, still the flower is very beautifull and exceeding delightsome." Of peonies, lupins, pinks, sea-holly and sweet-william. Of lilies of the valley, gentian, Canterbury bells, hollyhocks and mallows ("which for their bravery are entertained everywhere unto every countrey-woman's garden"). Of foxgloves, goldilocks, valerian and mullein. Of cuckoo-flowers, "or Ladies smockes," both the double and the trefoil.

The first kind, Parkinson tells us, "is found in divers places of our owne Countrey as neere Micham about eight miles from London;" also in Lancashire, "from whence I received a plant, which perished, but was found by the industrie of a worthy Gentlewoman dwelling in those parts called Mistresse Thomasin Tunstall, a great lover of these delights.

The other was sent me by my especiall good friend John Tradescant, who brought it among other dainty plants from beyond the seas, and imparted thereof a root to me." Of clematis and candytufts, honeysuckles and jasmine. Of double-flowered cherries, apples and peaches. "The beautiful shew of these three sorts of flowers," he says, "hath made me to insert them into this garden, in that for their worthinesse I am unwilling to bee without them, although the rest of their kindes I have transferred into the Orchard, where among other fruit trees they shall be remembered: for all these here set downe seldome or never beare any fruite, and therefore more fit for a Garden of flowers then an Orchard of fruite. These trees be very fit to be set by Arbours."

In this garden of pleasant flowers we find also many fragrant herbs.

"After all these faire and sweete flowers," says Parkinson, "I must adde a few sweete herbes, both to accomplish this Garden, and to please your senses, by placing them in your Nosegayes, or elsewhere as you list. And although I bring them in the end or last place, yet they are not of the least account." He writes first of rosemary, the common, the gilded, the broad-leaved and the double-flowered. Of rosemary he tells us: "This common Rosemary is so well knowne through all our Land, being in every woman's garden, that it were sufficient but to name it as an ornament among other sweete herbes and flowers in our Garden. It is well observed, as well in this our Land (where it hath been planted in n.o.blemen's, and great men's gardens against brick wals, and there continued long) as beyond the Seas, in the naturall places where it groweth, that it riseth up in time unto a very great height, with a great and woody stemme (of that compa.s.se that--being clouen out into thin boards--it hath served to make lutes, or such like instruments, and here with us Carpenters rules, and to divers other purposes), branching out into divers and sundry armes that extend a great way, and from them againe into many other smaller branches, whereon we see at several distances, at the ioynts, many very narrow long leaves, greene above, and whitish underneath, among which come forth towards the toppes of the stalkes, divers sweet gaping flowers of a pale or bleake blewish colour, many set together standing in whitish huskes ... although it will spring of the seede reasonable well, yet it is so small and tender the first yeare, that a sharpe winter killeth it quickly, unlesse it be very well defended; the whole plant as well leaves as flowers, smelleth exceeding sweete."

Of sage and of lavender both the purple and the rare white[94] ("there is a kinde hereof that beareth white flowers and somewhat broader leaves, but it is very rare and seene but in few places with us, because it is more tender, and will not so well endure our cold Winters"). "Lavender," he says, "is almost wholly spent with us, for to perfume linnen, apparell, gloues and leather and the dryed flowers to comfort and dry up the moisture of a cold braine." Of French lavender ("the whole plant is somewhat sweete, but nothing so much as Lavender). It groweth in the Islands Staechades which are over against Ma.r.s.elles and in Arabia also: we keep it with great care in our Gardens. It flowreth the next yeare after it is sowne, in the end of May, which is a moneth before any Lavender." Of lavender cotton, of which he writes: "the whole plant is of a strong sweete sent, but not unpleasant, and is planted in Gardens to border knots with, for which it will abide to be cut into what forme you think best, for it groweth thicke and bushy, very fit for such workes, besides the comely shew the plant it selfe thus wrought doth yeeld, being alwayes greene and of a sweet sent." Of basil, "wholly spent to make sweet or washing waters, among other sweet herbes, yet sometimes it is put into nosegayes. The Physicall properties are to procure a cheerfull and merry heart"; and marjoram, "not onely much used to please the outward senses in nosegayes and in the windowes of houses, as also in sweete pouders, sweete bags, and sweete washing waters." Of all the varieties of thyme and hyssop--and of the white hyssop he writes that its striped leaves "make it delightfull to most Gentlewomen." Hyssop, he tells us further, "is used of many people in the Country to be laid unto cuts or fresh wounds, being bruised, and applyed eyther alone, or with a little sugar." "And thus," he concludes this part of the book, "have I led you through all my Garden of Pleasure, and shewed you all the varieties of nature housed therein, pointing unto them and describing them one after another. And now lastly (according to the use of our old ancient Fathers) I bring you to rest on the Gra.s.se, which yet shall not be without some delight, and that not the least of all the rest."

From his garden of pleasant flowers he leads us to the kitchen garden, full not only of "vegetables" as we understand the term, of strawberries, cuc.u.mbers and pompions, but also of a vast number of herbs in daily use, many of them never seen in modern gardens. Besides the familiar thyme, balm, savory, mint, marjoram, and parsley, there are clary, costmary, pennyroyal, fennel, borage, bugloss, tansy, burnet, blessed thistle, marigolds, arrach, rue, patience, angelica, chives, sorrel, smallage, bloodwort, dill, chervil, succory, purslane, tarragon, rocket, mustard, skirrets, rampion, liquorice and caraway.

But according to Parkinson they used fewer herbs in his day than in olden times; for under pennyroyal we find, "The former age of our great-grandfathers had all these pot herbes in much and familiar use, both for their meates and medicines, and therewith preserved themselves in long life and much health: but this delicate age of ours, which is not pleased with anything almost, be it meat or medicine, that is not pleasant to the palate, doth wholly refuse these almost, and therefore cannot be partaker of the benefit of them." From the kitchen garden with all these herbs, "of most necessary uses for the Country Gentlewomen's houses," he leads us, finally, to the orchard, with its endless varieties of apple and pear trees, of cherries, medlars, plums, "apric.o.c.kes" and nectarines, of figs and peaches and almonds, of quinces, walnuts, mulberries and vines (ending with the Virginian vine, of which he says, "we know of no use but to furnish a Garden and to encrease the number of rarities"), until, like the Queen of Sheba, we feel that, with all we have heard of the comfortable splendour of Elizabeth's reign, the half has not been told us. "And thus," Parkinson concludes, "have I finished this worke, and furnished it with whatsoever Art and Nature concurring could effect to bring delight to those that live in our Climate and take pleasure in such things; which how well or ill done, I must abide every one's censure; the iudicious and courteous I onely respect, let Momus bite his lips and eate his heart; and so Farewell."

Parkinson's monumental work, _Theatrum Botanic.u.m_, was completed, as already mentioned, in his seventy-third year. In it about 3800 plants are described (nearly double the number of those in the first edition of Gerard's Herbal). In the _Theatrum_ he incorporated nearly the whole of Bauhin's _Pinax_, besides part of the unfinished work by de l'Obel mentioned before. The book remained the most complete English treatise on plants until the time of Ray. Parkinson originally intended to ent.i.tle it "A Garden of Simples"[95] and, had he done so, it is at least possible that this work, to which he devoted the greater part of his life, would have achieved the popularity it deserved. Except in the ill.u.s.trations, it is a finer book than Gerard's, but the latter remained the more popular. In fact, this herbal of Parkinson's is an outstanding proof that a good book may be ruined by a bad t.i.tle. _Theatrum Botanic.u.m_ sounds hard and chilling, whereas _Gerard's Herball_ has an attractive ring. The fact that the former never attained the popularity achieved by the latter seems the more pathetic when we read the author's own concluding charge to this work of his lifetime:--"Goe forth now therefore thou issue artificial of mine and supply the defect of a Naturall, to beare up thy Father's name and memory to succeeding ages and what in thee lyeth effect more good to thy Prince and Country then numerous of others, which often prove rather plagues then profits thereto, and feare not the face of thy fiercest foe."

The ornamental t.i.tle-page of the _Theatrum Botanic.u.m_ is both interesting and impressive. The two most important figures are those of Adam and Solomon (representing Toil and Wisdom respectively).

Solomon is dressed in a long coat with an ermine cape, and he wears Roman sandals. At the four corners of the page are female figures:--Europe driving majestically in a chariot with a pair of horses; Asia clad in short skirts and shoes with curled points and riding a rhinoceros; Africa wearing only a hat, and mounted upon a zebra; and America, also unclothed, carrying a bow and arrow and riding a sheep with surprisingly long ears. Each of these figures is surrounded by specimens of the vegetation of their respective continents.

It is curious to find in the dedicatory letter to Charles I. a touch of the old belief that diseases are due to evil spirits:--

"And I doubt not of your Majesties further care of their bodies health that such Workes as deliver approved Remedyes may be divulged whereby they may both cure and prevent their diseases. Most properly therefore doth this Worke belong to your Majesty's patronage both to further and defend that malevolent spirits should not dare to cast forth their venome or aspertions to the prejudice of any well-deserving, but that thereby under G.o.d and Good direction, all may live in health as well as wealth, peace and G.o.dliness, which G.o.d grant and that this boldnesse may be pardoned to

"Your Majestyes "Loyale Subject "Servant and Herbarist "JOHN PARKINSON."

[Ill.u.s.tration: t.i.tLE-PAGE OF PARKINSON'S "THEATRUM BOTANIc.u.m"

(1640)]

There are letters extolling the Herbal from three Oxford doctors, two of whom refer to the then newly-made physic garden on the Cherwell.