FRENCH PHILOSOPHISM, an a.n.a.lysis of things conducted on the presumption that scientific knowledge is the key to unlock the mystery and resolve the riddle of the universe.

FRENCH REVOLUTION, according to Carlyle "the open violent revolt, and victory, of disimprisoned Anarchy against corrupt, worn-out Authority, the crowning Phenomenon of our Modern Time," but for which, he once protested to Mr. Froude, he would not have known what to make of this world at all; it was a sign to him that the G.o.d of judgment still sat sovereign at the heart of it.

FRERE, SIR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD, a distinguished diplomatist and colonial governor, born near Abergavenny; entering the East India Company in 1834, he rendered important services as administrator in Mahratta and as Resident in Sattara in 1847; as the chief-commissioner in Sind he did much to open up the country by means of ca.n.a.ls, roads, etc.; during the Mutiny, which arrested these works of improvement, he distinguished himself by the prompt manner in which he suppressed the rising in his own province; from 1862 to 1867 he was governor of Bombay; in 1867 was knighted, and five years later carried through important diplomatic work in Zanzibar, signing the treaty abolishing the slave-trade; his last appointment was as governor of the Cape and High-Commissioner for the settlement of South African affairs; the Kaffir and Zulu Wars involved him in trouble, and in 1880 he was recalled, having effected little (1815-1884).

FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM, English politician and author, born in London, uncle of the preceding; he was a staunch supporter of Pitt, and in 1799 became Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs; a year later he was envoy to Lisbon, and subsequently minister to Spain; in 1821 he retired to Malta, where he devoted himself to scholarly pursuits, twice declining a peerage; in his early days he was a contributor to the _Anti-Jacobin_, and shares with his school-fellow Canning the authorship of the "Needy Knife-Grinder"; but he is best known by his fine translations of some of Aristophanes' plays (1769-1841).

FRESCO, the art of painting on walls freshly laid with plaster, or which have been damped so as to permit of the colour sinking into the lime; there were two methods, the _fresco secco_ and the _fres...o...b..on_; in the first the wall was sprinkled with water, and the colours were then worked into the damp surface; in the second process, in which finer and more permanent effects were obtained, the artist worked upon the fresh plaster of the wall (which is laid for him as he proceeds), pouncing or tracing his designs with a stylus; only colours which are natural earths can be employed, as they require to be mixed with lime ere being applied, and are subject to the destroying effect of that substance; as a method of mural decoration it was known to the ancients, and some of the finest specimens are to be seen in the Italian cathedrals of the 14th and 15th centuries; the art is still in vogue, but can only be practised successfully in a dry climate.

FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN, French physicist, born at Broglie, Eure; as an engineer he rose to be head of the Department of Public Works at Paris; in 1825 he was elected an F.R.S. of London; he made discoveries in optical science which helped to confirm the undulatory theory of light, also invented a compound lighthouse lens (1783-1827).

FRESNO (11), a town in California, on the Southern Pacific Railway, 207 m. SE. of San Francisco; the surrounding district, extensively irrigated, produces abundance of fruit, and raisins and wine are largely exported.

FREUND, WILHELM, German philologist, born at Kempen, in Posen; studied education at Berlin and Breslau, and was chiefly occupied in teaching till 1870, when he retired in order to devote himself to his literary pursuits; besides cla.s.sical school-books and some works on philology, he compiled an elaborate Latin dictionary in 4 vols., which has been the basis of the standard English-Latin dictionaries since; _b_.

1806.

FREYR, figures in the Scandinavian mythology as the G.o.d who rules the rain and sunshine, and whose gifts were peace, wealth, and abundant harvests; the wooing of Gerda, daughter of the giant Gymer, by Freyr is one of the most beautiful stories in the northern mythology; his festival was celebrated at Christmas, and his first temple was built at Upsala by the Swedes, who especially honoured him.

FREYTAG, GUSTAV, an eminent German novelist and dramatist, born at Kreuzburg, Silesia; from 1839 was teacher of German language and literature at Breslau, and became editor of a journal, a position he held till 1870; was a member of the North German Diet, and accompanied the Crown Prince during the war of 1870-71; from 1879 resided at Wiesbaden; his many novels and plays and poems, which reveal a powerful and realistic genius, place him in the front rank of modern German litterateurs; several of his novels have been translated into English, amongst which his masterpiece, "Soll und Haben" (Debit and Credit) (1816-1895).

FRIAR (i. e. brother), a name applied generally to members of religious brotherhoods, but which in its strict significance indicated an order lower than that of priest, the latter being called "father," while they differed from monks in that they travelled about, whereas the monk remained secluded in his monastery; in the 13th century arose the Grey Friars or Franciscans, the Black Friars or Dominicans, the White Friars or Carmelites, Augustinians or Austin Friars, and later the Crutched Friars or Trinitarians.

FRIAR JOHN, a friar of Seville, in Rabelais' "Pantagruel," notorious for his irreverence in the discharge of his religious duties and for his lewd, l.u.s.ty ways.

FRIAR TUCK, Robin Hood's chaplain and steward, introduced by Scott into "Ivanhoe" as a kind of clerical Falstaff.

FRIDAY, the young savage, the attendant of Robinson Crusoe, so called as discovered on a Friday.

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week, so called as consecrated to Freyia or Frigga, the wife of Odin; is proverbially a day of ill luck; held sacred among Catholics as the day of the crucifixion, and the Mohammedan Sunday in commemoration as the day on which, as they believe, Adam was created.

FRIEDLAND, VALENTIN, an eminent scholar and educationist, born in Upper Lusatia; friend of Luther and Melanchthon; his fame as a teacher attracted to Goldberg, in Silesia, where he taught, pupils from far and near; the secret of his success lay in his inculcating on his pupils respect for their own honour; had a great faith in the intelligence that evinced itself in clear expression (1490-1556).

FRIEND OF MAN, Marquis de Mirabeau, so called from the t.i.tle of one of his works, "L'Ami des Hommes."

FRIENDLY ISLANDS, islands of the S. Pacific, some 180 in number, mostly of coral or volcanic origin, and of which 30 are inhabited; the natives rank high among the South Sea islanders for intelligence. See TONGA ISLANDS.

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, a.s.sociations of individuals for the purpose of mutual benefit in sickness and distress, and of old and wide-spread inst.i.tution and under various names and forms.

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF, a community of Christians popularly known as Quakers, founded in 1648 by GEORGE FOX (q. v.), distinguished for their plainness of speech and manners, and differing from other sects chiefly in the exclusive deference they pay to the "inner light," and their rejection of both clergy and sacrament as media of grace; they refuse to take oath, are averse to war, and have always been opposed to slavery.

FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an a.s.sociation formed as far back as 1792 to secure by const.i.tutional means parliamentary reform.

FRIES, ELIAS, Swedish cryptogamic botanist, professor at Upsala; wrote on fungi and lichens (1794-1878).

FRIES, JAKOB FRIEDRICH, a German Kantian philosopher; was professor at Jena; aimed at reconciling the Kantian philosophy with Faith, or the intuitions of the Pure Reason (1773-1843).

FRIESLAND, the most northerly province of Holland, with a rich soil; divided into East and West Friesland; low-lying and pastoral; protected by d.y.k.es.

FRIGGA, a Scandinavian G.o.ddess, the wife of Odin; worshipped among the Saxons as a G.o.ddess mother; was the earth deified, or the Norse Demeter.

FRISIANS, a Low German people, who occupied originally the sh.o.r.es of the North Sea from the mouths of the Rhine and Ems; distinguished for their free inst.i.tutions; tribes of them at one time invaded Britain, where traces of their presence may still be noted.

FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL, an English painter, born near Ripon, Yorkshire; his works are numerous, his subjects varied and interesting, and his most popular pictures have brought large sums; _b_. 1819.

FRITZ, FATHER, name given to Frederick the Great by his subjects "with a familiarity which did not breed contempt in his case."

FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN, famous English sailor and navigator, born near Doncaster; thrice over enthusiastically essayed the discovery of the North-West Pa.s.sage under Elizabeth; accompanied Drake to the West Indies; was knighted for his services against the Armada; conducted several expeditions against Spain; was mortally wounded when leading an attack on Brest, and died on his pa.s.sage home (1535-1594).

FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH, a devoted German educationist on the principles of Pestalozzi, which combined physical, moral, and intellectual training, commencing with the years of childhood; was the founder of the famous _Kindergarten_ system (1782-1852).

FROGMORE, a royal palace and mausoleum in Windsor Park, the burial-place of Prince Albert.

FROISSART, JEAN, a French chronicler and poet, born at Valenciennes; visited England in the reign of Edward III., at whose Court, and particularly with the Queen, he became a great favourite for his tales of chivalry, and whence he was sent to Scotland to collect more materials for his chronicles, where he became the guest of the king and the Earl of Douglas; after this he wandered from place to place, ranging as far as Venice and Rome, to add to his store; he died in Flanders, and his chronicles, which extend from 1322 to 1400, are written without order, but with grace and _navete_ (1337-1410).

FROMENTIN, EUGeNE, an eminent French painter and author, born at Roch.e.l.le; was the author of two travel-sketches, and a brilliant novel "Dominique" (1820-1876).