Just as in Central America, the occupations of the women of the lower and middle cla.s.s are agriculture, domestic service, washing, sewing, and retail business. But woman's educational opportunities in South America are greater, although through public opinion everything possible is done to prevent women from desiring an education and admission to a liberal calling. Elementary education is compulsory (often in coeducational schools). Secondary education is in the hands of convents. In Brazil, Chili, Venezuela, Argentine Republic, Paraguay, and Colombia, the universities have been opened to women. As yet there are no women preachers or lawyers, although several women have studied law. Women practice as physicians, obstetrics still being their special field.

The beginnings of a woman's rights movement exist in Chili. The Chilean women learn readily and willingly. They have proved their worth in business and in the liberal callings. They have competed successfully for government positions; they have founded trade-unions and cooperative societies; many women are tramway conductors, etc. In all the South American republics women have distinguished themselves as poets and authors. In the Argentine Republic there is a Federation of Woman's Clubs, which, in 1901, joined the International Council of Women.

CHAPTER III

THE SLAVIC AND BALKAN STATES

In the Slavic countries there is a lack of an ancient, deeply rooted culture like that of western Europe. Everywhere the oriental viewpoint has had its effect on the status of woman. In general the standards of life are low; therefore, the wages of the women are especially wretched.

Political conditions are in part very unstable,--in some cases wholly antique. All of these circ.u.mstances greatly impede the progress of the woman's rights movement.

RUSSIA

Total population: 94,206,195.

Women: 47,772,455.

Men: 46,433,740.

Federation of Russian Women's Clubs.[98]

National Woman's Suffrage League.

The Russian woman's rights movement is forced by circ.u.mstances to concern itself chiefly with educational and industrial problems. All efforts beyond these limits are, as a matter of course, regarded as revolutionary.

Such efforts are a part of the forbidden "political movement"; therefore they are dangerous and practically hopeless. Some peculiarities of the Russian woman's rights movement are: its individuality, its independence of the momentary tendencies of the government, and the companionable cooperation of men and women. All three characteristics are accounted for by the absolute government that prevails in Russia, in spite of its Duma.

Under this regime the organization of societies and the holding of meetings are made exceedingly difficult, if not impossible. Individual initiative therefore works in solitude; discussion or the expression of opinions is not very feasible. When individual initiative ceases, progress usually ceases also. Corporate activity, such as educates women adherents, did not exist formerly in Russia. The lack of united action wastes much force, time, and money. Unconsciously people compete with each other.

Without wishing to do so, people neglect important fields. The absolute regime regards all striving for an education as revolutionary. The educational inst.i.tutions for women are wholly in the hands of the government. These inst.i.tutions are tolerated; but a mere frown from above puts an end to their existence.

It is the absolute regime that makes comrades of men and women struggling for emanc.i.p.ation. The oppression endured by both s.e.xes is in fact the same.

The government has not always been an enemy of enlightenment, as it is to-day. The first steps of the woman's rights movement were made through the influence of the rulers. Although polygamy did not exist in Russia, the country could not free itself from certain oriental influences. Hence the women of the property-owning cla.s.s formerly lived in the harem (called _terem_). The women were shut off from the world; they had no education, often no rearing whatever; they were the victims of deadly ennui, ecstatic piety, lingering diseases, and drunkenness.

With a strong hand Peter the Great reformed the condition of Russian women. The _terem_ was abolished; the Russian woman was permitted to see the world. In rough, uncivilized surroundings, in the midst of a brutal, sensuous people, woman's release was not in all cases a gain for morality.

It is impossible to become a woman of western Europe upon demand.

Catherine II saw that there must be a preparation for this emanc.i.p.ation.

She created the _Inst.i.tute de demoiselles_ for girls of the upper cla.s.ses.

The instruction, borrowed from France, remained superficial enough; the women acquired a knowledge of French, a few _accomplishments_, polished manners, and an aristocratic bearing. For all that, it was then an achievement to educate young Russian women according to the standards of western Europe. The superficiality of the _Inst.i.tutka_ was recognized in the middle of the nineteenth century. Alexander II, the Tsarina, and her aunt, Helene Pavlovna, favored reforms. The emanc.i.p.ator of the serfs could also liberate women from their intellectual bondage.

Thus with the protection of the highest power, the first public lyceum for girls was established in 1857 in Russia. This was a day school for girls of _all_ cla.s.ses. What an innovation! To-day there are 350 of these lyceums, having over 10,000 women students. The curriculums resemble those of the German high schools for girls. None of these lyceums (except the humanistic lyceum for girls in Moscow), are equivalent to the German _Gymnasiums_ or _Realgymnasiums_, nor even to the _Oberrealschulen_ or _Realschulen_. This explains and justifies the refusal of the German universities to regard the leaving certificates of the Russian lyceums as equivalent to the _Abiturienten_ certificate of the German schools. The compulsory studies in the girls' lyceums are: Russian, French, religion, history, geography, geometry, algebra, a few natural sciences, dancing, and singing. The optional studies are German, English, Latin, music, and sewing. The lyceums of the large cities make foreign languages compulsory also; but these inst.i.tutions are in the minority. In the natural sciences and in mathematics "much depends on the teacher." A Russian woman wishing to study in the university must pa.s.s an entrance examination in Latin.

The first efforts to secure the higher education of women were made by a number of professors of the University of St. Petersburg in 1861. They opened courses for the instruction of adult women in the town hall.

Simultaneously the Minister of War admitted a number of women to the St.

Petersburg School of Medicine, this school being under his control.

However, the reaction began already in 1862. Instruction in the School of Medicine, as well as in the town hall, was discontinued. Then began the first exodus of Russian women students to Germany and Switzerland. But in St. Petersburg, in 1867, there was formed a society, under the presidency of Mrs. Conradi, to secure the reopening of the course for adult women.

The society appealed to the first congress of Russian naturalists and physicians. This congress sent a pet.i.tion, with the signatures of influential men, to the Minister of Public Instruction. In two years Mrs.

Conradi was informed that the Minister would grant a two-year course for men and women in Russian literature and the natural sciences. The society accepted what was offered. It was little enough. Moreover, the society had to defray the cost of instruction; but it was denied the right to give examinations and confer degrees. All the teachers, however, taught without pay. In 1885 the society erected its own building in which to give its courses. The instruction was again discontinued in 1886. Once more the Russian women flocked to foreign countries. In 1889 the courses were again opened (Swiss influence on Russian youth was feared). The number of those enrolled in the courses was limited to 600 (of these only 3 per cent could be unorthodox, _i.e._ Jewish). These courses are still given in St.

Petersburg. Recently the Council of Ministers empowered the Minister of Public Instruction to forbid women to attend university lectures; but those who have already been admitted, and find it impossible to attend other higher inst.i.tutions of learning for girls, have been allowed to complete their course in the university. The present number of women hearers in Russian universities is 2130. A Russian woman doctor was admitted as a lecturer by the University of Moscow, but her appointment was not confirmed by the Minister of Public Instruction. She appealed thereupon to the Senate, declaring that the Russian laws nowhere prohibited women from acting as teachers in the universities; moreover, her medical degree gave her full power to do so. The decision of the Senate is still pending.

A recent law opens to women the calling of architect and of engineer. The work done on the Trans-Siberian Railroad by the woman engineer has given better satisfaction than any of the other work. A bill providing for the admission of women to the legal profession has been introduced but has not yet become law.

The Russian women medical students shared the vicissitudes of Russian university life for women. After 1862 they studied in Switzerland, where Miss Suslowa, in 1867, was the first woman to be given the doctor's degree in Zurich. However, since the lack of doctors is very marked on the vast Russian plains, the government in 1872 opened special courses for women medical students in St. Petersburg. (In another inst.i.tution courses were given for midwives and for women regimental surgeons.) The women completing the courses in St. Petersburg were not granted the doctor's degree, however. The Russian women earned the doctor's degree in the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878); for ten years after this war women graduates of the St. Petersburg medical courses were granted degrees. Then these courses were closed in 1887. They were opened again in 1898. Under these difficult circ.u.mstances the Russian women secured their higher education.

In the elementary schools, for every 1000 women inhabitants there are only 13.1 women public school teachers. Of the 2,000,000 public school children, only 650,000 are girls. The number of illiterates in Russia varies from 70 to 80 per cent. The elementary school course in the country is only three years (it is five years in the cities).

The number of women public school teachers is 27,000 (as compared with 40,000 men teachers). An attempt has been made by the women village school teachers to arouse the women agricultural laborers from their stupor.

Organization of women laborers has been attempted in the cities. For the present the task seems superhuman.[99]

When graduating from the lyceum the young girl is given her _teaching diploma_, which permits her to teach in the four lower cla.s.ses in the girls' lyceums. Those wishing to teach in the higher cla.s.ses must take a special examination in a university. The higher cla.s.ses in the girls'

lyceums are taught chiefly by men teachers. When a Russian woman teacher marries she need not relinquish her position.

In Russia the women doctors have a vast field of work. For every 200,000 inhabitants there is only one doctor! However, in St. Petersburg there is one doctor for every 10,000 inhabitants. According to the most recent statistics there are 545 women doctors in Russia. Of these, 8 have ceased to practice, 245 have official positions, and 292 have a private practice.

Of the 132 women doctors in St. Petersburg, 35 are employed in hospitals, 14 in the sanitary department of the city; 7 are school physicians, 5 are a.s.sistants in clinics and laboratories, 2 are superintendents of maternity hospitals, 2 have charge of foundling asylums, 5 have private hospitals, and the rest engage in private practice. Of the 413 women doctors not in St. Petersburg, 173 have official positions, the others have a private practice.

The local governments (_zemstvos_) have appointed 26 women doctors in the larger cities, 21 in the smaller, and 55 in the rural districts. There are 18 women doctors employed in private hospitals on country estates, 8 in hospitals for Mohammedan women, 16 in schools, 9 in factories, 4 are employed by railroads, 4 by the Red Cross Society, etc. The practice of the woman doctor in the country is naturally the most difficult and the least remunerative. Therefore, it is willingly given over to the women.

Thanks to individual ability, the Russian woman doctor is highly respected.

There are 400 women druggists in Russia. Their training for the calling is received by practical work (this is true of the men druggists also).

According to the last statistics (1897), there were 126,016 women engaged in the liberal professions. There are a number of women professors in the state universities.

Women engage in commercial callings. The schools of commerce for women were favored by Witte in his capacity of Minister of Finance. They have since been placed under the control of the Minister of Instruction and Religion. This will restrict the freedom of instruction. Instruction in agriculture for women has not yet been established. Commerce engages 299,403 women; agriculture and fisheries, 2,086,169.

Women have been appointed as factory inspectors since 1900. The Ministry of Justice and the Ministry of Communication employ women in limited numbers, without ent.i.tling them to pensions. The government of the province of Moscow has appointed women to munic.i.p.al offices, and has appointed them as fire insurance agents. The _zemstvo_ of Kiew had done this previously; but suddenly it discharged them from the munic.i.p.al offices. For the past nine years an inst.i.tution founded by the Princes Liwin has trained women as managers of prisons.[100]

The names of two prominent Russian women must be mentioned: Sonja Kowalewska, the winner of a contest in mathematics, and Madame Sklodowska-Curie, the discoverer of radium. Both prove that women can excel in scientific work. It must be emphasized that the woman student in Russia must often struggle against terrible want. Whoever has studied in Swiss, German, or French universities knows the Russian-Polish students who in many cases must get along for the whole year with a couple of ten ruble bills (about ten dollars). They are wonderfully una.s.suming; they possess inexhaustible enthusiasm.

Many Russian women begin their university careers poorly prepared. To unfortunate, divorced, widowed, or dest.i.tute women the "University"

appears to be a golden goal, a promised land. Of the privations that these women endure the people of western Europe have no conception. In Russia the facts are better known. Wealthy women endow all educational inst.i.tutions for girls with relief funds and with loan and stipend funds.

Restaurants and homes for university women have been established. The "Society for the Support of University Women" in Moscow has done its utmost to relieve the misery of the women students.[101]

The economic misery of the industrial and agricultural women (who are almost wholly unorganized) is somewhat worse than that of the university women. The statements concerning women's wages in Vienna might give some idea of the misery of the Russian women. In Bialystock, which has the best socialistic organization of women, the women textile workers earn about 18 cents a day; under favorable circ.u.mstances $1.25 to $1.50 a week.

A skillful woman tobacco worker will earn 32-1/2 cents a day. The average daily wages for Russian women laborers are 18 to 20 cents.

Hence it is not astonishing that in the South American houses of ill-fame there are so many Russian girls. The agents in the white slave trade need not make very extravagant promises of "good wages" to find willing followers.[102] A workingwomen's club has existed since 1897 in St.

Petersburg. There are 982,098 women engaged in industry and mining; 1,673,605 in domestic service (there being 1,586,450 men domestic servants). Of the women domestic servants 53,283 are illiterate (of the men only 2172!). In 1885 the women formed 30 per cent of the laboring population; in 1900 the number had increased to 44 per cent. Of the total number of criminals in Russia 10 per cent are women.

The legal status of the Russian woman is favorable in so far as the property law provides for property rights. The Russian married woman controls not only her property, but also her earnings and her savings. As survival of village communism and the feudal system, the right to vote is restricted to taxpayers and to landowners. In the rural districts the wife votes as "head of the family," if her husband is absent or dead. Then she is also given her share of the village land. She votes in person. In the cities the women that own houses and pay taxes vote by proxy. The women owners of large estates (as in Austria) vote also for the provincial a.s.semblies. Although const.i.tutional liberties have a precarious existence in Russia, they have now and then been beneficial to women.

With great effort, and in the face of great dangers, woman's suffrage societies were formed in various parts of the Empire. They united into a national Woman's Suffrage League. The brave Russian delegates were present in Copenhagen and in Amsterdam. They belonged to all ranks of society and were adherents to the progressive political parties. Since the dissolution of the first Duma (June 9, 1906) the work of the woman's suffrage advocates has been made very difficult; in the rural districts especially all initiative has been crippled. In Moscow and St. Petersburg the work is continued by organizations having about 1000 members; 10,000 pamphlets have been distributed, lectures have been held, a newspaper has been established, and a committee has been organized which maintains a continuous communication with the Duma.

The best established center of the Russian woman's rights movement is the Woman's Club in St. Petersburg. Through the tenacious efforts of the leading women of the club,--Mrs. v. Philosophow, (Mrs.) _Dr. med._ Schabanoff, and others,--the government granted them, in the latter part of December, 1908, the right to hold the first national congress of women.

(The stipulation was made that foreign women should not partic.i.p.ate, and that a federation of women's clubs should not be formed.) The discussions concerned education, labor problems, and politics. Publicity was much restricted; police surveillance was rigid; addresses on the foreign woman's suffrage movement were prohibited. Nevertheless, this progressive declaration was made: Only the right to vote can secure for the Russian women a thorough education and the right to work. Moreover, the Congress favored: better marriage laws (a wife cannot secure a pa.s.sport without the consent of her husband), the abolition of the official regulation of prost.i.tution, the abolition of the death penalty, the struggle against drunkenness, etc. The Congress was opened by the Lord Mayor of St.

Petersburg and was held in the St. Petersburg town hall. This was done in a sense of obligation to the women school teachers of St. Petersburg and to those women who had endeared themselves to the people through their activity in hospitals and asylums. The Lord Mayor stated that these activities were appreciated by the munic.i.p.al officers and by all munic.i.p.al inst.i.tutions.

Although the Congress was opened with praise for the women, it ended with an intentional insult to the highly talented and deserving leader, Mrs. v.

Philosophow. Mr. Purischkewitch, the reactionary deputy of the Duma, wrote a letter in which he expressed his pleasure at the adjournment of her "congress of prost.i.tutes" (_Bordellkongress_). Mrs. v. Philosophow surrendered this letter and another to the courts, which sentenced the offender to a month's imprisonment, against which he appealed. After this Congress has worked over the whole field of the woman's rights movement, a special congress on the education of women will be held in the autumn of 1909.[103]