Our next business will be to ascertain how these registers are divided among various voices, and the result as revealed by the laryngoscope is rather startling. It consists in this, that the break between the Thick and Thin occurs _in both s.e.xes_ at about [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] In order to realize the full meaning of this, the reader must bear in mind that music for tenors is generally written an octave higher than it is sung, so that the tones we are now speaking about would, as a rule, in a tenor part be expressed by [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation].

My a.s.sertion, therefore, amounts to this, that everything below [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] whether sung by soprano, contralto, tenor, or ba.s.s, is produced by one mechanism--that is to say, by the vocal ligaments vibrating in their entire thickness; and that the series of tones above [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] whether sung by ba.s.s, tenor, contralto, or soprano, is again produced by one mechanism (although a different one from the last), that is to say, by the vocal ligaments vibrating only with their thin inner edges. Then there remains the small register, which belongs almost exclusively to sopranos, and which represents the series of tones above [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation].

I thus maintain, not only that the great break between the thick and the thin occurs (individual differences apart) at the same place in both s.e.xes, but that (leaving for the moment sub-divisions out of consideration) the male voice has but two registers--_i.e._, the Thick and the Thin, while the female voice has three registers--_i.e._, the Thick, the Thin, and the Small. From this it follows that the female voice is _not_, as supposed by some, simply a reproduction of the male an octave higher.

I have spoken of the above results of the investigations with the laryngoscope as startling, because the female voicebox is generally imagined to be exactly like the male, save in size, and the inference that the female voice must be exactly like the male, save in pitch, is, therefore, a very natural one. Neither am I surprised that those who hold an opposite view to mine are never tired of advancing this argument.

Mr. Lunn says, in the book quoted before, on page 24, "Consequently it may safely be a.s.serted that the vocal cords are subject to the same laws as all sounding bodies, and as the sole difference between the male and the female larynx is one of size alone, the voice from the latter _is_ a reproduction of the former on a higher scale."

I have, however, shown by the measurements of Luschka, on p. 64, that the proportions of the female voicebox are materially different from those of the male, and I have also pointed out differences in shape noticeable to any observer. Now, although I do not pretend that I have by these facts and figures sufficiently accounted for the difference in the registers of the male and the female voice; yet these facts and figures are nevertheless greatly in my favour, and they are certainly a sufficient answer to the above argument of those who differ from me.

My case is further strengthened by the testimony of that eminent physiologist, Dr. Merkel, who says,[N] "In the male organ there are only two materially different registers to be noticed, the chest and the falsetto, ... on the other hand, in the female organ there are clearly to be distinguished three registers--a low, a medium, and a high." (From Dr. Merkel's definitions on pp. 148, 149, and 152, it will be seen that low, medium, and high, are but other names here employed for Thick, Thin, and Small.) Dr. Merkel, speaking of the chest (thick) register, goes on to observe, on p. 148, "It ceases, very curiously, in both s.e.xes on one of the first four tones of the one-lined octave (der ein-gestrichenen Octave) [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] so that it is about one octave longer [deeper] in man than in woman."

Let it be observed above all things that I am not propounding a theory, but explaining a fact; a fact, moreover, which I have before now demonstrated to men holding opposite opinions, thereby convincing them, and which I am willing at any moment to demonstrate again. A very striking proof that the distribution of the registers is in accordance with my explanations may be further found in the circ.u.mstance that it is often impossible to distinguish a male voice from a female when (other things such as power and quality being equal) both sing in the same registers. The similarity is, of course, greatest between tenor and contralto, and in case of a trial they must confine themselves to the compa.s.s easily belonging to both; neither should the singers be seen by the listeners. I have frequently by these experiments convinced sceptics; and it has happened more than once when the female voice was slightly more robust than the male, that, to the great amus.e.m.e.nt of those present, the judges emphatically and without the slightest hesitation p.r.o.nounced the lady to be the tenor and the gentleman the contralto.

We have so far only spoken of three registers, the Thick, below [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]; the Thin, between [Ill.u.s.tration: Music and]; and the Small, above [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]. The distinguishing features of these are so very clear as to make any mistake impossible. But now we come to sub-divisions, and with regard to these the matter is not so simple. Singers know very well that other breaks occur in the human voice besides those hitherto mentioned, and the question arises how they are to be accounted for by corresponding changes in the vocal organ. The evidence furnished on this point by the laryngoscope is, in my opinion, not sufficient, because the alterations in the vocal ligaments are so exceedingly minute as to be capable of being differently interpreted by different observers. I have consequently come to the conclusion that they cannot be accepted as indicating changes of mechanism unless corroborated and amplified by other signs.

In order to place the whole subject before the reader in a comprehensive form, I cannot do better than quote the elaborate description which Madame Emma Seiler gives of the registers in "The Human Voice in Singing" (Philadelphia, 1875). Madame Seiler, to whom Mr. Lunn is pleased to refer, on p. 65 of his treatise, as an "ignorant person,"

a.s.sisted Professor Helmholtz, of Heidelberg, in his essay upon the Formation of the Vowel-tones and the Registers of the Female Voice. He says he thus had "an opportunity of knowing the delicacy of her musical ear, and her ability to master the more difficult and abstract parts of the theory of music." The Professor further speaks of her as "a very careful, skilled, and learned teacher." Professor Du Bois-Reymond, of Berlin, also describes her as "a lady of truly remarkable attainments."

With such recommendations I make no apology for quoting at length from Madame Seiler's writings; and it will be readily understood that whenever I differ from her, I do so with some diffidence, and only after careful conviction of the accuracy of my own independent observations.

[Ill.u.s.tration]

I shall subst.i.tute the terms. .h.i.therto used in these pages for others employed by Madame Seiler, and I have added a diagram of the registers, which may a.s.sist the reader in forming a clear idea of the subject.

THE THICK REGISTER.

"When the vowel A, as in 'man,' was sung, I could, after long-continued practice, plainly see how the pyramids quickly rose with their summits in their mucous membranous case and approached to mutual contact. In like manner the vocal ligaments approached each other so closely that scarcely any s.p.a.ce between them was observable. The pocket ligaments formed the ellipse described by Garcia in the upper part of the glottis."

The word "glottis" really signifies the vibrating element in the voicebox. I suppose, therefore, that by "the upper part of the glottis"

Madame Seiler here means the "part above the glottis."

"When, in using the laryngoscope upon myself, I slowly sang the ascending scale, this movement of the vocal ligaments and pyramids was repeated at every tone. They separated and appeared to retreat, in order to close again anew, and to rise somewhat more than before. This movement of the pyramids may best be compared to that of a pair of scissors. With every higher tone the vocal ligaments seemed more stretched, and the vocal c.h.i.n.k somewhat shorter. At the same time, when I sang the scale upward, beginning with the lowest tones, the vocal ligaments seemed to be moved in their whole length and breadth by large, loose vibrations, which extended even to all the rest of the interior of the voicebox.

"The place at which the pyramids, almost closed together, cease their action and leave the formation of the sound to the vocal ligaments alone, I found in the thick register of the female voice at C, C[#]

[Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation], more rarely at B [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]. In the thick register of the male voice this change occurs at A, B[b] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]. With some effort the above-mentioned action of the pyramids may be continued several tones higher. But such tones, especially in the female voice, have that rough and common timbre which we are too often compelled to hear in our female singers. The glottis also, in this case, as well as the parts of the voicebox near the glottis, betrays the effort very plainly; as the tones ascend, the glottis and the surrounding parts grow more and more red.

_As at this place in the thick register there occurs a visible and sensible straining of the organs, so also is it in all the remaining transitions, as soon as the attempt is made to extend the action by which the lower tones are formed beyond the given limits of the same._ These transitions, which cannot be extended without effort, coincide perfectly with the places where J. Muller had to _stretch_ the ligaments of his exsected voicebox so powerfully in order to reach the succeeding half-tone. Garcia likewise finds tones thus formed disagreeable and imperfect in sound.

"Usually, therefore, at the note C[#] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]

in the female voice, and A, B[b] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] in the male voice, the vocal ligaments alone act in forming the sound, and are throughout the register moved by large, loose, full vibrations. But the instant the vocal ligaments are deprived of the a.s.sistance of the pyramids they relax, and appear longer than at the last tone produced by that aid. But with every higher tone they appear again to be stretched shorter and more powerfully up to F, F[#] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] the natural transition from the thick to the thin register, as well in the _male_ as in the _female_. The voicebox is perceptibly lower in all the tones of the thick register than in quiet breathing."

I confess my inability to understand how the vocal ligaments can get _longer_ by relaxing and _shorter_ by stretching. But apart from this I a.s.sert that there is no relaxing of the vocal ligaments at the break between the Lower Thick and the Upper Thick at all. This is clearly proved by the ring-shield aperture, which would open immediately if such were the case. I also doubt whether the action or inaction of the pyramids determines the break between the Lower Thick and the Upper Thick, as they are cartilages--_i.e._, pieces of gristle--and cannot, therefore, by any vibrations of their own a.s.sist in the production of tone. The tension of the vocal ligaments increases as we sing up the scale until the ring-shield aperture has quite disappeared. But while it remains so closed, and without the vocal ligaments being any further stretched, we can yet sing higher still. The gradations of tone are now no longer formed by the action of the ring-shield muscles (see p. 34), but by the shield-pyramid muscles which press the vocal ligaments more and more closely together, until at last scarcely any trace of a slit remains between them. Another result of this action of the shield-pyramid muscles must also be to narrow the s.p.a.ce _below_ the vocal c.h.i.n.k, which, as we know from the experiments of J. Muller, has the effect of raising the pitch of tones. I think it very likely, therefore, that the change from the lower to the upper thick is really brought about by the shield-pyramid muscles coming into play after the ring-shield muscles have done their share.

THE THIN REGISTER.

"All the tones of the thin register are produced by vibrations only of the fine, inner, slender edges of the vocal ligaments. In this action the vocal ligaments are not so near together, but allow of a fine linear s.p.a.ce between them, and the pocket ligaments are pressed further back than in the production of the tones of the thick register. The rest of the action of the glottis is, however, entirely the same. With the beginning of the thin register at F[#] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]

the whole vocal c.h.i.n.k appears again longer, and the vocal ligaments are much looser than in the highest tones of the thick register. The united action, already described, of the pyramids and the vocal ligaments in forming the deeper tones of the thin register, extends to C, C[#]

[Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] in the female voice, and in the male voice to E[b], E [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] commonly written thus, E[b], E [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] but which only rarely occurs in composition, and then is sung by tenors as I have given it; that is, one octave lower.

"With the C[#] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] in the female voice, and the E[b], E [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] in the male voice, the pyramids cease again to act, and, as before, in the Upper Thick, leave the formation of the sounds to the vocal ligaments alone, which at this change appear again longer and looser, but with every higher tone tighten up to F, F[#] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] in the female voice, and in the male voice to G [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] or as it is commonly written, [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation]. In the thin register the voicebox preserves its natural position as in quiet breathing."

I must say here that I have never had any very clear conception of Madame Seiler's meaning when she speaks of the action or inaction of the pyramids in the formation of the registers. In the lower thick register there is, as a rule, a small triangular s.p.a.ce between them which gets gradually smaller as the tones ascend, until it is quite closed in the upper thick. Dr. Merkel, also, has made the same observation. So far, therefore, we are agreed. But even of this I can find no trace in the thin register, where I have always noticed that the pyramids are quite close together. On this point, my a.s.sertion is borne out by Dr. Merkel, who insists upon the same thing. I also demur to Madame Seiler's statement that in this register again the vocal ligaments relax at the beginning of the upper division, and I invite the reader to test the matter by reference to the ring-shield aperture. The evidence furnished by this experiment is conclusive, because the vocal ligaments cannot possibly relax without a corresponding enlargement of the ring-shield aperture. A very striking ill.u.s.tration of this occurs during the transition from the Upper Thick to the Lower Thin. During the highest tones of the Upper Thick, when the tension of the vocal ligaments is greatest, the ring-shield aperture, as we have seen before, completely closes, while immediately opening very widely during the lowest tones of the Lower Thin, when the vocal ligaments are quite relaxed. Nothing of the kind takes place during the change either from the Lower Thin to the Upper Thin, or from the Lower Thick to the Upper Thick. It appears to me that Madame Seiler has rather exaggerated the importance of these minor breaks, while she does not make enough of the great break between the Upper Thick and the Lower Thin. If there is straining anywhere, it is during the attempt to carry the mechanism of the Upper Thick beyond its natural limit. In this case the tension of the vocal ligaments, as indeed of all surrounding parts, becomes so tremendous that at last the whole thing looks as though it were literally going to fly to pieces in every direction. Now change into the Lower Thin, and the relief is wonderful. Let tenors make a note of this. If they _will_ violate Nature, they must pay the penalty!

As regards the transition from the Lower Thin to the Upper Thin, I would suggest the following explanation:--The vocal c.h.i.n.k is at first, as Madame Seiler says, linear, and the gradations of tone are caused by simple tension of the vocal ligaments, which is proved by the diminution of the ring-shield aperture. While this goes on we are in the Lower Thin. Now the laryngoscope reveals another method of still further raising the pitch, which consists in a gradual shortening of the vocal c.h.i.n.k. This is caused by the shield-pyramid muscles pressing together the ends of the vocal ligaments, thereby giving the vocal c.h.i.n.k a slightly elliptic shape. When this mechanism comes into play we are in the Upper Thin.

THE SMALL REGISTER.

"When in the observation of the thin register I had sung upwards to its highest tones, and then sang still higher, I became aware, with the F[#]

[Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] of a change in the motions of the organ of singing, and the tones thus produced had a different _timbre_ from those of the Thin. It required long and patient practice before I finally succeeded in drawing forward the lid so that I could see the glottis in its whole length. Not until then was I able to observe the following: With the F[#] [Ill.u.s.tration: musical notation] the vocal ligaments suddenly closed firmly together to their middle, with their fine edges one over the other. This closing appeared as a fine red line extending, from the pyramids at the back, forward to the middle of the vocal ligaments, and leaving free only a third part of the whole glottis, immediately under the lid, to the front wall of the voicebox.

"The foremost part of the glottis formed an oval orifice, which, with every higher tone, seemed to contract more and more, and so became smaller and rounder. The fine edges of the vocal ligaments which formed this orifice were alone vibrating, and the vibrations seemed at first looser, but, with every higher tone, the ligaments were more stretched."

I have repeatedly had the opportunity of observing the mechanism of the small register, and I only differ from Madame Seiler in this, that I did not notice that "with every higher tone the ligaments were more stretched." It appeared to me, on the contrary, as though the raising of the pitch was produced by a contraction of the vocal ligaments. In all other respects I entirely agree with the above description. According to Madame Seiler the small register is formed by the action of the wedges, as described on p. 54.

We have thus become acquainted with the mechanism of the registers of the human voice. We have also seen that it is possible to carry these up beyond their natural limits, though the process is accompanied by visible signs of straining. The practice of teachers, therefore, whose aim it is to "extend" voices upwards, and who are very proud, especially in tenors, of their "made tones," is strongly to be condemned, and is sure to have disastrous results. It is, on the other hand, equally possible to carry the registers down several tones below the places called the breaks, so that at the limits of each register there are a number of tones which may be produced by two different mechanisms. The carrying down of a register causes no fatigue, and though its volume is weak as compared with the corresponding lower register, it is surprising how soon it can, by judicious practice, be made to acquire fulness and power.

In order to prevent misunderstandings, it may be well to add that the breaks as indicated in the preceding pages are intended only to show the average compa.s.s in the great majority of voices. As, for instance, there are ba.s.ses who have an exceptional extension of the Lower Thick downwards, so there are, undoubtedly, tenors who have an exceptional extension of the Upper Thick upwards. It must, therefore, be the voice trainer's business very carefully to ascertain the exact limits of the registers in every single case. In choral singing, however, where individual attention is impossible, the breaks as given above may be implicitly relied upon. Not only should the registers never be carried above these points, but if the teacher is wise he will insist upon his pupils forming the habit of changing the mechanism a tone or two below.

NEVER "EXTEND" LOWER REGISTERS UPWARDS, BUT STRENGTHEN THE UPPER REGISTERS, AND CARRY THEM DOWNWARDS, THUS EQUALIZING THE VOICES FROM TOP TO BOTTOM, AND ENABLING YOUR PUPILS TO SING WITHOUT STRAINING. That is the great lesson taught by the investigations described in these pages.

I have seen a singer pull himself together, and with a tremendous effort shout a high A in the thick register. His neck swelled out, his face became blood-red, and altogether the "performance" was of an acrobatic rather than of an artistic nature. The general public, of course, loudly applauded, but people of taste and refinement shuddered. Such exhibitions are, unfortunately, not rare. If this little book should contribute, however remotely, to discourage them, it will not have been written in vain.

APPENDIX TO THE THIRD EDITION

It has been suggested to me that the usefulness of my little book would be enlarged if I were to add an appendix containing some application to practical work of the physiological laws already explained. This I have endeavoured to do in the following chapter, and I trust the simplicity of the directions will enable the reader to carry out my instructions, to vary them, and to enlarge upon them according to circ.u.mstances.

HINTS ON TEACHING.

One of the most important lessons taught us by the study of Vocal Physiology is the correct method of breathing and of obtaining control over the respiratory muscles. I will now give a few exercises for this purpose.

Divest yourself of any article of clothing which at all interferes with the freedom of the waist. Lie down flat on your back. Place one hand lightly on the abdomen and the other upon the lower ribs. Inhale, through the nostrils, slowly, deeply, and evenly, without interruption or jerking. If this is done properly the abdomen will, gradually and without any trembling movement, increase in size, and the lower ribs will expand sideways, while the upper part of the chest and the collar-bones remain undisturbed. Now hold the breath, _not_ by shutting the glottis, but by keeping the midriff down and the chest walls extended, and count four mentally, at the rate of sixty per minute. Then let the breath go _suddenly_. The result of this will be a flying up of the midriff, and a falling down of the ribs; in other words, there will be a collapse of the lower part of the body. This collapse may not at first be very distinct, as the extension has probably been insufficient; but both will become more and more perfect as the result of continued practice.

Let it be clearly understood: The _in_spiration is to be slow and deep, the _ex_piration sudden and complete. In _in_spiration the abdomen and the lower part of the chest expand, and in _ex_piration they collapse.

The time of holding the breath is not, at the outset, to exceed four seconds, and the student must never, on any account, fatigue himself with these exercises; they may, however, be frequently repeated at intervals. It will be found by occasional trials upon the spirometer that the breathing capacity increases with these exercises. The process of abdominal respiration becomes easy and no longer requires constant watchfulness, and the student will soon be able to carry it on, not only lying down, but while he is standing or walking, though not at once with the same ease. He must now, for a time, be careful to see that he has the same physical sensations in breathing which he noticed while making his first experiment when lying down; and he must exercise special care when running, going upstairs, &c., and, of course, in speaking or singing.