a' True a' False 9. Prices for food in Little Italy are relatively expensive.

a' True a' False 10. Antonio has spent much time acquiring his reputation as an Italian connoisseur.

a' True a' False See solution APPENDIX IV a" a.n.a.lOGIES a.n.a.logies are one of the most underrated tools for creative thinking and reasoning. a.n.a.logies help define the relationships between two or more things. Identifying simple relationships begins with an understanding of what types of potential relationships exist. Although a.n.a.logies exist across the four primary symbolic systems which we use to communicate a" words, numbers, pictures, and music a" this appendix concerns itself only with verbal a.n.a.logies. Ten major categories of verbal a.n.a.logies include: synonym, antonym, part to whole, part to part, cause and effect, degree, sequence, function or purpose, characteristic, and a.s.sociation.

Type of a.n.a.logy: 1. Synonym Definition: Synonyms are words or phrases that are similar in meaning.

Example: HELP : a.s.sIST Both ahelpa and aa.s.sista share similar meanings.

2. Antonym Definition: Antonyms are words or phrases that are opposite in meaning.

Example: OPTIMISTIC : PESSIMISTIC Optimistic means aexpecting the besta; this is opposed to pessimistic, which means aexpecting the worst.a 3. Part to Whole Definition: Something smaller is compared to something larger (or vice-versa).

Example: BRANCH : TREE A branch is a smaller part of a whole tree.

4. Part to Part Definition: Something which is a part of a whole is compared to something else which is itself part of another whole.

Example: FOOT : HAND Foot is part of the leg as hand is part of the arm.

5. Cause and Effect Definition: Something that creates a situation (called the acausea) is matched with the result of that cause (called the aeffecta).

Example: FIRE : SMOKE A fire causes smoke (fire is the cause; smoke is the effect).

6. Degree Definition: Shows an increase or decrease in the intensity of two items.

Example: HAPPY : ECSTATIC Ecstatic means extremely happy.

7. Sequence Definition: Shows the progression from one thing to another.

Example: SPRING : SUMMER Summer is the season that follows spring (or spring is the season that comes before summer).

8. Function or Purpose Definition: Shows how something is used, how it functions, or what purpose it has.

Example: SCISSORS : CUT Scissors are used to cut things.

9. Characteristic Definition: Describes something in terms of one of its dominant characteristics (usually an adjective).

Example: MONK : TOLERANT A monk can be described as tolerant.

10. a.s.sociation Definition: Describes a connection between two words based on a.s.sociation or common understanding.

Example: FRANCE : EIFFEL TOWER The Eiffel Tower is a.s.sociated with France.

Problem 41: a.n.a.logy Exercise Choose the answer a" A through D a" which best completes each a.n.a.logy. Also choose a number a" 1 through 10 a" that best describes the type of a.n.a.logy highlighted.

Types of a.n.a.logy: 1. Synonym 2. Antonym 3. Part to Whole 4. Part to Part 5. Cause and Effect 6. Degree 7. Sequence 8. Function or Purpose 9. Characteristic 10. a.s.sociation See solution 1. RED : PINK :: BLACK :.

A) beige B) white C) gray D) dark 2. HEAT : RADIATOR :: BREEZE :.

A) sea B) wind C) shade D) fan 3. BIG : LARGE :: WIDE :.

A) high B) broad C) long D) small 4. DOG : CAT :: CROCODILE :.

A) reptile B) hippopotamus C) lizard D) elephant 5. FLOWER : BOUQUET :: LINK :.

A) gold B) steel C) orchard D) chain 6. TOMORROW : YESTERDAY :: FUTURE :.

A) present B) past C) ago D) today 7. HERO : VALOR :: HERETIC :.

A) dissent B) bravado C) reverence D) discretion 8. PRESENT : BIRTHDAY :: REWARD :.

A) accomplishment B) punishment C) medal D) money 9. SKY : GROUND :: CEILING :.

A) floor B) roof C) top D) plaster 10. MONEY : BANK :: KNOWLEDGE :.

A) intelligence B) reading C) graduation D) books APPENDIX V a" THE TEN CLa.s.sIC TRADE-OFFS Reasoning can at times be viewed in terms of polar opposites and trade-offs. As children we learn the simplicity of remembering things by recognizing opposing traits and characteristics, and as adults, we continue to grapple with ideas expressed in contradictory ways. Consider the following pairs of well-known quotes: He who hesitates is lost.

Haste makes waste.

Nothing ventured, nothing gained.

Better safe than sorry.

Out of sight, out of mind.

Absence makes the heart grow fonder.

Many hands make light work.

Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Certain trade-offs also recur in the realm of reasoning and decision making. Familiarity with such trade-offs speeds recognition of core issues.

A summary of the 10 cla.s.sic trade-offs presented here includes: 1. Breadth vs. Depth 2. Control vs. Chance 3. Individual vs. Collective 4. Means vs. Ends 5. Quant.i.ty vs. Quality 6. Short-term vs. Long-term 7. Specific vs. General 8. Subjective vs. Objective 9. Theory vs. Practice 10. Tradition vs. Change 1. Breadth vs. Depth Trade-off Inevitably, each person has experienced this trade-off in terms of the adeptha versus abreadtha of his or her academic, professional, or personal experience. Do we have a lot of one thing or a little of a lot? In terms of academics, should we focus deeply on our studies or should we engage in lots of school activities as well? In commerce, a factory might choose to produce lots of one type of product or smaller quant.i.ties of a diverse number of products. In terms of our personal investment strategy, do we put all our money in one type of investment (focus) or do we spread our money over two or more different investments (variety)?

2. Control vs. Chance Trade-off The more a situation is subject to control, the less it is subject to chance. The more a situation is left to chance, the less it is under control. The anature versus nurturea controversy is a famous example of the control versus chance trade-off. Does heredity play a dominant role in personality or does upbringing and environment? Here nature is the achancea element in personality development and nurture is the acontrola element. Although many people believe in a middle-of-the-road approach, the core issue is one viewed in terms of polarity or mutual opposition.

3. Individual vs. Collective Trade-off What is more important, the individual or the group? By upholding individual rights or freedoms, do we not sacrifice collective rights and freedoms (and vice versa)? This apparent trade-off is the focal point around which pivots the const.i.tution of virtually every developed country.

4. Means vs. Ends Trade-off aMeansa are the ways or approaches while aendsa are the outcomes or results. Typically two people might disagree in terms of the means but share the same end. A simple real-life example involves two people debating about which route (means) to take to get to a single downtown location (end). Sometimes, we disagree in terms of the end but agree on the means. Suppose we have decided to spend bonus money on a vacation but are deliberating about where to go. Here is a cla.s.sic situation of sharing the same means (i.e., spending money to go on vacation) but not knowing what the ends should be (i.e., vacation destination).

5. Quant.i.ty vs. Quality Trade-off The quant.i.ty versus quality trade-off appears frequently in everyday life. Rarely do we demand more and, at the same time, realistically expect better quality as well. For example, in terms of a price and quant.i.ty trade-off, a lower price generally means more quant.i.ty and lower quality, while a higher price means higher quality but lower quant.i.ty.

6. Short-term vs. Long-term Trade-off Sometimes the only difference between two opposing points of view is a difference in time frames. Two people, for example, might equally believe in the potential benefits of s.p.a.ce exploration, but disagree as to whether itas a priority worth pursuing in the short-run.

7. Specific vs. General Trade-off aSpecifica is like seeing the trees, and agenerala is like seeing the forest. A startup company will likely have more success as a niche player (known for selling a specific product or service), but as it grows it will become a generalist (known for selling a number of products or services). Perhaps you know people who are good with details but poor with the bigger picture; others are good with the bigger picture but poor with details. The fictional fellow James Bond is a rare fellow indeed: one who is both detail-minded and a generalist!

How does the breadth versus depth trade-off differ from a specific versus general trade-off? Specific versus general is about scope. Specific means we have a narrow scope; general means we have a broad scope. Breadth versus depth is about variety. Breadth means we have a lot of variety; depth means we have less variety and more constancy.

Take an example from photography. We decide to snap some photos of a large summer garden. In our role as a generalist, we stand back and take pictures of the whole of the garden. The more pictures we take of the whole garden from different angles, the more breadth our photography collection will have. The more pictures of the whole garden from a similar angle, the more depth weall have.

In our role as a specialist, we advance for close-up shots. By taking close-ups of a few select flowers from many different angles, we add breadth to our collection. By taking lots of close-up shots of a few select flowers from one particular angle, we add depth to our photo collection.

8. Subjective vs. Objective Trade-off Subjective means that something is based on personal experience, feeling, or opinion. Objective means that something is not based on personal experience, feeling, or opinion a" it is impartial and based in fact. The subjective versus objective trade-off has many faces. These include: art versus science, emotion versus logic, and pa.s.sion versus intellect. It is ostensibly impossible to maintain subjectivity and objectivity simultaneously.

9. Theory vs. Practice Trade-off Perhaps the easiest way to think of a theory versus practice trade-off is to view it in terms of schooling versus work experience. Schooling is equated with theory and work experience with practice. It is generally a.s.sumed that a given situation involves more of one of these two things to the neglect of the other.

10. Tradition vs. Change Trade-off The past hails tradition and the future hails change. In everyday life, we might argue for a return to tradition, as in the case of family values or work ethic. In other situations, a person will push for change and opt for a different set of values or work ethic. Culture and tradition are almost always in conflict with change and modernization. In America, the right to own and/or carry handguns is supported in large measure because the American Const.i.tution (atraditiona) provides for the right to bear arms. Others, who are opposed to owning and/or carrying handguns, cite common sense, based on the fact that times have changed, and arguing that the American Const.i.tution needs to be amended (achangea).

Problem 42: Matching Exercise Which trade-offs are showcased in the scenarios below? Place the number in the appropriate box, thereby matching the problem numberaa"a1 through 10aa"awith the trade-offaa"aA through Jaa"awhich best describes the subject matter contained in the scroll.

a'*A. Breadth vs. Depth a'*B. Control vs. Chance a'*C. Individual vs. Collective a'*D. Means vs. Ends a'*E. Quant.i.ty vs. Quality a'*F. Short-term vs. Long-term a'*G. Specific vs. General a'*H. Subjective vs. Objective a'*I. Theory vs. Practice a'*J. Tradition vs. Change See solution 1. Fossil Fuels Brenda: In the long run, fossil fuels, including oil, coal, and even gas, will be exhausted, and the major practical alternative will be solar energy. Therefore, we should develop that option in the remaining time.

Bob: I disagree. It would be foolish to switch to energy from crude solar energy systems, and it is unnecessary to do so, when the supply of oil, coal, and especially gas are more than adequate for our current needs.

2. Miracle Tablets One Miracle tablet contains twice the pain reliever found in regular aspirin. A consumer will have to take two aspirin to get the relief provided by one Miracle tablet. And since a bottle of Miracle costs the same as a bottle of regular aspirin, consumers can be expected to switch to Miracle.

3. Pirates International anti-piracy laws, restricting the unauthorized duplication of music CDs and online downloads, must be more effectively enforced. Effective reinforcement would lead to greater revenues for the music companies that lose millions of dollars each year on illegal copies and downloads. This increase in revenue would stimulate music companies to release a wider range of their prerecorded music. That outcome alone makes rigid enforcement a benefit to music fans who had previously saved money on cheaper, illegal CD copies and downloads.

4. Techies Dr. Jansonas research challenges the conventional wisdom that training unskilled people in a narrow skill like computer programming or accounting will make them upwardly mobile. He claims that a disproportionately small percentage of college graduates with vocational degrees have landed upper-echelon management jobs. According to his research, presidents and CEOs of Fortune 500 Companies land and hold upper-echelon jobs because of their broader liberal arts education, which fosters more a.n.a.lytically rigorous minds.

5. Workers The problem with labor unions today is that their top staffs consist of college-trained lawyers, economists, and labor relations experts who cannot understand the concerns of real workers. The goal of union reform movements should be to recruit top staff members from worker representatives who have come up from the ranks of the industry involved.

6. Sales During a recent business meeting, management voted unanimously to target increased sales as the best strategy to move the company forward. However, debate ensued as to the best method to achieve this goal. Some key staff members pointed to hiring more salespeople as the key to increasing sales, while others argued that what was needed was a market study to better understand consumer needs.

7. Safe Haven Wealthy parents living in urban centers, who are increasingly concerned with neighborhood violence such as drive-by shootings, are considering moving to the safety of the suburbs. However, statistics show that the death rate for teenagers in suburban areas is no less than that in urban areas because teenagers living in suburban areas have a higher incidence of suicide as well as death from driving while intoxicated.

8. Free Speech Our government guarantees that we have the right to free speech, and yet this is an illusion. Yelling aFire!a in a crowded theatre, joking about a bomb while at an airport, or engaging in obscene rants in publicaa"aall of these are, in fact, grounds for arrest. Clearly, the government is contradicting its promise of free speech to all.

9. Historians Todayas historians, in an attempt to mimic the work of natural scientists, have adopted the practice of churning out edited laboratory reports, complete with impressive computer data and statistical charts. The best historical writing, however, is produced by bringing imagination and understanding to bear upon evidence from the past. This requires pa.s.sion, which does not always accord with scientific methods that require the investigator to be detached.

10. My Land During the early 1970s, Adam Nordwell, a Native American Chippewa chieftain, arrived by plane in Italy from California. Dressed in full tribal regalia, he descended the steps of the aircraft, and halfway down he stopped and announced: aI proclaim this day the day of discovery of Italy.a In a humorous jest, Nordwell was proclaiming possession of Italy for the American Indian people! After all, what right did Columbus have to claim America for Italy, or exercise the right of discovery, when America was already occupied by people who had lived there for centuries?

APPENDIX VI a" CRITICAL REASONING AND COMPREHENSION The ability to read while capturing subtleties in written language is an important skill which dovetails with reasoning ability. After reading carefully the pa.s.sage below, try answering the five questions that follow. This excerpted pa.s.sage was written by Mortimer J. Adler, author and former chairman of the board of directors of Encyclopedia Britannica and co-founder of The Center for the Study of The Great Ideas.

Problem 43: Sample Pa.s.sage For more than forty years, a controlling insight in my educational philosophy has been the recognition that no one has ever been a" no one can ever be a" educated in school or college. That would be the case if our schools and colleges were at their very best, which they certainly are not, and even if the students were among the best and the brightest, as well as conscientious in the application of their powers. The reason is simply that youth itself a" immaturity a" is an insuperable obstacle to becoming educated. Schooling is for the young. Education comes later, usually much later. The very best thing for our schools to do is to prepare the young for continued learning in later life by giving them the skills of learning and the love of it. Our schools and colleges are not doing that now, but that is what they should be doing.

To speak of an educated young person or of a wise young person, rich in the understanding of basic ideas and issues, is as much a contradiction in terms as to speak of a round square. The young can be prepared for education in the years to come, but only mature men and women can become educated, beginning the process in their forties and fifties and reaching some modic.u.m of genuine insight, sound judgment and practical wisdom after they have turned sixty.

Those who take this prescription seriously would, of course, be better off if their schooling had given them the intellectual discipline and skill they need to carry it out, and if it also had introduced them to the world of learning with some appreciation of its basic ideas and issues. But even the individual who is fortunate enough to leave school or college with a mind so disciplined, and with an abiding love of learning, would still have a long road to travel before he or she became an educated person. If our schools and colleges were doing their part and adults were doing theirs, all would be well. However, our schools and colleges are not doing their part because they are trying to do everything else. And adults are not doing their part because most are under the illusion that they had completed their education when they finished their schooling.

Only the person who realizes that mature life is the time to get the education that no young person can ever acquire is at last on the high road to learning. The road is steep and rocky, but it is the high road, open to anyone who has skill in learning and the ultimate goal of all learning in view a" understanding the nature of things and manas place in the total scheme. An educated person is one who through the travail of his own life has a.s.similated the ideas that make him representative of his culture, that make him a bearer of its traditions and enable him to contribute to its improvement.

Questions a" Choose the best answer based on the previous pa.s.sage.

See solution 1. The authoras primary purpose in writing this pa.s.sage is to A) Highlight major tenets in educational philosophy in the last 40 years.

B) Raise public awareness about the need for teachers with training in the liberal arts.

C) Contrast the words aschoolinga and aeducation.a D) Suggest that youth stands in the way of oneas becoming educated.

E) Cite the importance of reading with active discussion.

2. According to the pa.s.sage, the best thing that our schools can do is to A) Improve academic instruction at the gra.s.sroots level.

B) Advocate using the word aeducationa in place of the word aschoolinga to better convey to adults the goal of teaching.

C) Convey to students that only through high scholastic achievement can one become truly educated.

D) Implement closely the opinions of adults who have already been through the educational process.

E) Help students acquire the skills for learning.

3. It can be inferred from the pa.s.sage that the educated person must A) Possess more maturity than pa.s.sion.

B) Not be less than forty years of age.

C) Be at least a university graduate.

D) Have read cla.s.sic works of literature.

E) Have traveled widely in order to understand his or her own culture.

4. Which of the following pairs of words most closely describes the authoras att.i.tude toward adults as mentioned in the pa.s.sage?

A) Uninformed partic.i.p.ants B) Unfortunate victims C) Conscientious citizens D) Invaluable partners E) Disdainful culprits 5. How is the previous pa.s.sage organized?

A) An objective a.n.a.lysis is put forth supported by factual examples.

B) A single idea is presented with which the author does not agree.

C) A thesis is presented and support given for it.

D) Two ideas are contrasted and a conciliatory viewpoint emerges.

E) A popular viewpoint is criticized from a number of perspectives.

APPENDIX VII a" TIPS FOR TAKING READING TESTS Woody Allen once joked: aI took a speed reading course and read War and Peace in twenty minutes. It involves Russia.a Well, so much for the details! This appendix is especially applicable for anyone preparing to write tests that involve reading comprehension. Reading comprehension is tested on virtually every standardized exam a" including the ACT, SAT, GRE, GMAT, LSAT, and MCAT a" and even appears on job placement exams. Typically, candidates are given three or four pa.s.sages (each pa.s.sage being two to four paragraphs in length) and asked to answer three to six multiple-choice questions per pa.s.sage. The test taker is required to choose the best answer on the basis of what is stated or implied in each pa.s.sage.

Strategies and Approaches 1. Read for content, noting topic, scope, and purpose.

Understanding the purpose of each pa.s.sage is fundamental. As you read a pa.s.sage, keep talking silently to yourself, aWhatas the purpose a where is the author going?a In other words, ask yourself, aWhy did the author sit down to write the pa.s.sage?a 2. Read the first sentence first, then scroll down and read the last sentence next.

A good tip is to read the first sentence of the pa.s.sage and then read the last sentence of the pa.s.sage, then start back reading at the top. Why? Because an author (of a pa.s.sage) might conclude on the last line, and if you read this as soon as possible, you will know where the author is going with his or her discussion, and be better able to remember pertinent details.

3. Read for structure, noting important transition words as well as the number of viewpoints and relationship among those viewpoints.

Next is structure. Keep close track of transition words such as ahowever,a abut,a amoreover,a and ahence.a These words are important and may influence dramatically the flow of the pa.s.sage. Second, think in terms of the number of paragraphs and viewpoints presented. Usually one paragraph represents one viewpoint. Frequently, reading comprehension pa.s.sages will contain two viewpoints and it may be helpful to try and simplify everything into simple black-and-white terms. For example, take a hypothetical pa.s.sage written about personality development. Ask yourself what is the relationship between, say, the three paragraphs of the pa.s.sage. Perhaps the first paragraph is the introduction, the second paragraph is how sociologists view personality development, the third paragraph is how biologists view personality development a now youave got it!