As to the breaking of axles or running off the line, the practical result has been that, from some cause or other, we have been almost perfectly free from those very objections which have been felt so seriously on some other lines. Far from breaking any engine axles, not even a single cranked axle has been strained, although the engines have been subjected to rather severe trials. One of our largest having, a short time back, been sent along the line at night, when it was not expected, came in collision with some ballast waggons, and was thrown off the line nearly 6 feet; none of the axles were bent, or even strained in the least, although the front of the carriage, a piece of oak of very large scantling, was shattered. After ten weeks' running, one solitary instance has occurred of a carriage in a train getting off the line and dragging another with it, and which was not discovered till after running a mile and a half. As the carriage was in the middle of the train, and one end of the axle was thrown completely out of the axle guard, there must evidently have been some extraordinary cause--possibly a plank thrown across the railway by a blow from the carriage which preceded, and which might have produced the same effect on any railway; and at any rate it was a strong trial to the axle, which was not broken, but merely restored to its place, and the carriage sent on to London.

The same mode of reasoning which has by some been used in favour of the 4 feet 8 inches gauge, if applied here, would prove that long axles are stronger than short, and wide rails best adapted for curves. All that I think proved, however, is this--that the increased tendency of the axles to break, or of the wheels to run off the rails, is so slight that it is more than counterbalanced by the increased steadiness from the width of the base, and the absence of those violent strains which arise from irregularity on the gauge and the harshness of the ordinary construction of rails. In fact, not one of the objections originally urged against the practical working of the wide gauge has been found to exist, while the object sought for is obtained, namely, the capability of increasing at any future period the diameter of the wheels, which cannot be done, however desirable it may hereafter be found, with the old width of rail.

This may be said to be only prospective; but, in the meantime, contingent advantages are sensibly felt in the increased lateral steadiness of the carriages and engines, and the greater s.p.a.ce which is afforded for the works of the locomotives. And here I wish particularly to call your attention to the fact that this prospective advantage--this absence of a most inconvenient limit to the reduction of the friction, which, with our gradients, forms four-fifths or eighty per cent. of the total resistance--was the object sought for, and that, at the time of recommending it, I expressly stated as follows:--'I am not by any means prepared at present to recommend any particular size of wheel, or even any great increase of the present dimensions. I believe they _will_ be materially increased; but my great object would be in every possible way to render each part _capable_ of improvement, and to remove what appears an obstacle to any great progress in such a very important point as the diameter of the wheels, upon which the resistance, which governs the cost of transport and the speed that may be obtained, so materially depends.'

These advantages were considered important by you, they are now considered so by many others; and certainly everything which has occurred in the practical working of the line confirms me in my conviction that we have secured a most valuable power to the Great Western Railway, and that it would be folly to abandon it.

The next point I shall consider is the construction of the engines, the modifications in which, necessary to adapt them to higher speeds than usual, have, like the increased width of gauge, been condemned as innovations.

I shall not attempt to argue with those who consider any increase of speed unnecessary. The public will always prefer that conveyance which is most perfect, and speed within reasonable limits is a material ingredient in perfection in travelling.

A rate of thirty-five to forty miles an hour is not unfrequently attained at present on other railways in descending planes, or with light loads on a level, and is found practically to be attended with no inconvenience. To maintain such a speed with regularity on a level line, with moderate loads, is therefore quite practicable, and unquestionably desirable. With this view the engines were constructed, but nothing new was required or recommended by me.

A certain velocity of the piston is considered the most advantageous.

The engines intended for slow speeds have always had the driving wheels small in proportion to the length of stroke of the piston. The faster engines have had a different proportion; the wheels have been larger, or the strokes of the piston shorter. From the somewhat clamorous objections raised against the large wheels, and the construction of the Great Western Railway engines, and the opinions rather freely expressed of my judgment in directing this construction, it would naturally be supposed that some established principle had been departed from, and that I had recommended this departure.

The facts are, that a certain velocity of piston being found most advantageous, I fixed this velocity, so that the engines should be adapted to run thirty-five miles an hour, and capable of running forty--as the Manchester and Liverpool Railway engines are best calculated for twenty to twenty-five, but capable of running easily up to thirty and thirty-five miles per hour; and fixing also the load which the engine was to be capable of drawing, I left the form of construction and the proportions entirely to the manufacturers, stipulating merely that they should submit detail drawings to me for my approval. This was the substance of the circular, which, with your sanction, was sent to several of the most experienced manufacturers. Most of these manufacturers, of their own accord, and without previous communication with me, adopted the large wheels, as a necessary consequence of the speed required. The recommendation coming from such quarters, there can be no necessity for defending my opinion in its favour; neither have I now the slightest doubt of its correctness. As it has been supposed that the manufacturers may have been compelled or induced by me to adopt certain modes of construction, or certain dimensions, in other parts by a specification--a practice which has been adopted on some lines--and that these restrictions may have embarra.s.sed them, I should wish to take this opportunity to state distinctly that such is not the case. I have indeed strongly recommended to their consideration the advantages of having very large and well-formed steam pa.s.sages, which generally they have adopted, and with good results; and with this single exception, if it can be considered one, they have been left unfettered by me (perhaps too much so) and uninfluenced, except indeed by the prejudices and fears of those by whom they have been surrounded, which have by no means diminished the difficulties I have had to contend with.

The princ.i.p.al proportions of these engines being those which have been recommended by the most able experimentalists and writers, and these having been adopted by the most experienced makers, it is difficult to understand who can const.i.tute themselves objectors, or what can be their objections.

Even if these engines had not been found effective, at least it must be admitted that the best and most liberal means had been adopted to procure them; but I am far from asking such an admission. The engines, I think, have proved to be well adapted to the particular task for which they were calculated--namely, high speeds--but circ.u.mstances prevent their being beneficially applied to this purpose at present, and they are, therefore, working under great disadvantages. An engine constructed expressly for a high velocity cannot, of course, be well adapted to exert great power at a low speed; neither can it be well adapted for stopping frequently and regaining its speed. But such was not the intention when these engines were made, neither will it be the case when the arrangements on the line are complete; in the meantime, our average rate of travelling is much greater than it was either on the Grand Junction or the Birmingham Railway within the same period of the opening. I have but one serious objection to make to our present engines, and for this, strange as it may seem, I feel that we are mainly indebted to those who have been most loud in their complaints--I refer to the unnecessary weight of the engines. There is nothing in the wide gauge which involves any considerable increased weight in the engine. An engine of the same power and capacity for speed, whether for a 4-feet 8-inch rail, or for a 7-feet rail, will have identically the same boiler, the same fire-box, the same cylinder and piston, and other working gear, the same side frames, and the same wheels; the axles and the cross-framing will alone differ, and upon these alone need there be any increase; but, if these were doubled in weight, the difference upon the whole engine would be immaterial. But the repeated a.s.sertion, frequently professing to come from experienced authorities, and repeated until it was supposed to be proved, that the increased gauge must require increased strength and great power, was not without its indirect effect upon the manufacturers. Unnecessary dimensions have been given to many parts, and the weight thereby increased--rather tending, as I believe, to diminish than to add to the strength of the whole. I thought then, and I believe now, that it would have been unwise in this case to have resisted the general opinion, and taken upon myself the responsibility which belonged to the manufacturers; but I need not now hesitate to say that a very considerable reduction may be effected, and that no such unusual precautions are necessary to meet these antic.i.p.ated strains and resistances--such being, in fact, imaginary. It cannot surprise anybody that, under such circ.u.mstances, attention was more occupied in endeavouring to meet these imaginary prejudiced objections, than in boldly taking advantage of the new circ.u.mstances, and that a piece of machinery constructed under such disadvantages was not likely to be a fair sample of what might be done. I am happy to say, however, that the result of the trials that have been made has entirely destroyed all credit in these alarmists with the manufacturer, and that we may hope in future to have the benefits of the free exercise of the intelligence and practical knowledge of engine-manufacturers.

The mode of laying the rails is the next point which I shall consider.

It may appear strange that I should again in this case disclaim having attempted anything perfectly new; yet regard to truth compels me to do so. I have recommended, in the case of the Great Western, the principle of a continuous bearing of timber under the rail, instead of isolated supports--an old system recently revived, and as such I described it in my Report of January 1836; the result of many hundred miles laid in this manner in America, and of some detached portions of railways in England, was quite sufficient to prove that the system was attended with many advantages; but since we first adopted it these proofs have been multiplied--there need now be no apprehension. There are railways in full work, upon which the experiment has been tried sufficiently to prove beyond doubt, to those willing to be convinced, that a permanent way in continuous bearings of wood may be constructed, in which the motion will be much smoother, the noise less, and consequently--for they are effects produced by the same cause--the wear and tear of the machinery much less. Such a plan is certainly best adapted for high speeds, and this is the system recommended by me and adopted on our road. There are, no doubt, different modes of construction, and that which I have adopted as an improvement upon others may, on the contrary, be attended with disadvantages. For the system I will strenuously contend.

But I should be sorry to enter with any such determined feeling into a discussion of the merits of the particular mode of construction. I would refer to my last Report for the reasons which influenced me, and the objects I had in view in introducing the piling; that part which had been made under my own eye answered fully all my expectations. Here the piles did answer their purpose, and no inconvenience resulted from their use. The difficulties which we have since encountered, the bad state in which the line was for a considerable time, and which is only recently improved, have undoubtedly been aggravated, if not caused, by these piles; but not, as I believe, from a defect in the principle as applied in our case, where the line is mostly in cutting, or on the surface, but from defective execution; for, notwithstanding the determination to allow sufficient time for this most important operation, yet, to make up for previous delays and loss of time, it became necessary at last to force forward the work more rapidly than was at all consistent with due care in the execution; and during the whole of this period I was most unfortunately prevented by a serious accident from even seeing the work almost until the day of opening, when I ought to have personally superintended the whole. I do not mean that the work was neglected by those whose duty it was to supply my place--far from it; but in such a case, a new work cannot be properly directed except under the eye of the master. Following exactly the plan which had succeeded on the first piece completed, several serious faults were committed. A much greater density and firmness of packing is required than was previously supposed; the mode of packing adopted, and the material selected, in the first instance, have proved defective elsewhere; and over a great extent in the line, particularly in the clay cuttings, and where the work was at last most hurried, it has been badly executed. But many parts have stood well from the commencement; others are fast improving; and I have the satisfaction, although a very painful one, of seeing that if, in the first instance, a foundation of coa.r.s.e gravel had been everywhere well rammed in before the timbers had been laid, and the packing formed upon this, we should, from the outset, have obtained as solid a road as we have now over a great part of the line. What we have been able to effect since the opening of the line has necessarily been a slow, expensive, and laborious operation. We have been compelled to open the ground, and excavate it to a depth of 18 inches under the longitudinal timbers, and this without interrupting the traffic: to remove the whole of the material thus obtained from off the line, and to replace it by coa.r.s.e ballast; and not having the means of sufficiently consolidating this ballast by ramming while the timber is in its place, the packing has to be repeated once or twice after it has been compressed by the pa.s.sing of the trains. This new packing, however, does stand, and in a few weeks I expect the line will be in a very different state from that in which it has been, or indeed now is. From what I have described as the result which can now be, and might have been, obtained from the commencement, it will be inferred that I am disposed still to defend the system of piling. I certainly could not abandon it from conviction of its inefficiency, for I see proofs of the contrary; and I feel that under similar circ.u.mstances I could now prevent the mischief which has occurred. Upon that portion of the line where the permanent way must next be formed, piling could not be resorted to, the ground being a solid hard chalk for many miles. I had intended, however, recommending the same principle, but in a different form, holding down the longitudinals by small iron rods driven into the chalk; but the same objection could not exist, because the chalk cannot yield under the timbers like clay, or even gravel. But I should wish most anxiously to avoid anything like an obstinate adherence to a plan, if the object which I believe essential can be obtained by other means, particularly when, that plan being my own, I may be somewhat prejudiced in its favour. I find that the system of piling involves considerable expenses in the first construction, and requires perhaps too great a perfection in the whole work, and that if the whole or a part of this cost were expended in increased scantling of timber and weight of metal, that a very solid continuous rail would be formed.

For this as a principle, as for the width of gauge, I am prepared to contend, and to stand or fall by it, believing it to be a most essential improvement, where high speeds are to be obtained. I strongly urge upon you not to hesitate upon these two main points, which, combined with what may be termed the natural advantages of the line, will eventually secure to you a superiority which, under other circ.u.mstances, cannot be obtained.

As regards the expense of forming the permanent way on this principle, I am quite prepared to maintain what I have on a former occasion advanced: that even on the system which we have adopted between London and Maidenhead, the total cost does not materially exceed that of a well-constructed line with stone blocks. I did not make in the outset an exact estimate of the cost of either mode; I was unable to obtain the cost which has actually been incurred on other lines; but a comparative estimate was made, and the result of that comparison led me to state that the one might exceed the other by 500_l._ a mile. The actual cost of our permanent way appears, by the detailed account which has been made out, to have been above 9,000_l._, including expenses of under-draining and forming the surfaces which cannot be included in the cost given in other cases, because that drainage (although I believe generally forming part of the plan) is not yet constructed. This sum includes the sidings at the stations, switches, joints, and other contingencies, and also the expenses incurred during the first month of working the line, and which, as I have before stated, consisted in removing and replacing work which had been improperly executed. These items will make a considerable reduction; and besides these, larger reductions may be effected in parts of the work which were new, and, from the circ.u.mstances naturally attending a first attempt, were not so economically conducted as they might be, or indeed, as they were towards the close of the works, when the different parts were let by contract.

Taking the prices at which the work was latterly actually executed, 8,000_l._ per mile would be a liberal allowance for our future proceeding, even adopting the same system; and with a modified system, such as that suggested of simple longitudinal bearers of large scantling, and a rail of fifty-four pounds per yard, at the present high price of iron, the cost, calculated upon our actual past expenditure, would not exceed 7,400_l._ per mile. This, I am aware, is a larger sum than that which has usually been a.s.sumed as the cost of the permanent way. I cannot prove that others have cost more, or even so much as this, as I have nothing but the published accounts to refer to; but this I can state, and prove if necessary, that rails and blocks, such as are now being adopted on the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, would upon our line cost at least as much.

The prime cost of rails and chairs delivered on the line would alone amount to half the money; and nothing is, perhaps, more certain than that the experience of other lines within the last two or three years has proved that this part of the construction of a railway is unavoidably much more expensive than was ever calculated for at the time our estimates were made.

I am, gentlemen, your obedient servant,

(Signed) I. K. BRUNEL.

APPENDIX II.

(_See Chapter IX. on the 'Great Britain' Steam-Ship, p. 254._)

_Report to the Directors of the Great Western Steam-Ship Company._

October 1840.

GENTLEMEN,--I have now the pleasure to lay before you the result of the different experiments which I have made, and of the best consideration I have been enabled to give to the subject of the screw propeller.

The observations which I have to make are naturally divided under two princ.i.p.al heads, namely: first, the simple question of the applicability and efficiency of the screw considered merely as a means of propelling a vessel, compared with the ordinary paddlewheel; and, secondly, the general advantages or disadvantages attending its use.

The consideration of the comparative efficiency of the screw as a means of propelling, of course embraces the whole question, not merely of the effect produced, but also that of the proportionate power absorbed in producing that effect.

With respect to the mere effect of a screw, the performance of the 'Archimedes' has proved, in a satisfactory and undeniable manner, that a screw acting against the water with a surface even much smaller than that offered by the paddle-boards of a well-proportioned paddlewheel, will propel the ship at a very fair speed, but at what expense of power this effect has been produced is not so evident.

I shall first examine into the princ.i.p.al cause of what amounts practically to a loss of power, and which is common in a greater or less degree to all modes of propelling a vessel by exerting a pressure against the water as against a fixed point.

The resistance, whether to the surface of a screw, or of a paddle-board, or of the blade of an oar, or any other propelling body, offered by the fluid against which it acts, is of course not perfect, and there is a certain amount of yielding, commonly called the slip, of the paddlewheel; the amount thus slipped causes a considerable waste of power, inasmuch as the full power of the engine is expended through the entire s.p.a.ce pa.s.sed over by the paddles or other propelling surface, while the useful effect produced is only equal to the same power expended over the s.p.a.ce through which the vessel pa.s.ses: this loss frequently amounts to one-quarter, and even one-third, of the whole power employed. To investigate theoretically the amount of slip due to any given form and quant.i.ty of surface, involves much more complicated calculations than have generally been applied, and would indeed require data which we hardly possess; but fortunately we have had the means of making experiments, the results of which enable us to determine the comparative slip of the paddle and of the screw, with sufficient accuracy for all practical purposes.

The screw in use on board the 'Archimedes' is 5 feet 9 inches diameter, with a pitch of 8 feet--that is to say, in making one revolution the thread of the screw advances 8 feet; the area of the screw, considered as a disc of the same diameter, or the extent of the surface of water which is acted upon in the direction of the axis of the vessel, is therefore about 26 feet, without deducting the section of the shaft-bearing, &c. The midship section of the vessel when I experimented upon her was, according to Mr. Patterson's estimate, 122 feet; the ratio of the resisting surface to the midship section being therefore as 1 to 47, which is a small proportion; and the form of the vessel is by no means peculiarly good as a steamboat. This proportion of propelling surface to midship section is much smaller--that is, the area of the screw is much less in proportion to the size of the vessel than is the area of paddle-boards immersed in steamboats generally.

The average paddle-board immersed and really effective is rather difficult to estimate, as allowances must be made for the disturbance of the water, when the wheel is in motion; but this average in the 'Great Western' measured perpendicularly--that is, allowing for the obliquity of the paddle--cannot be less than 180 to 200 feet, say only 180, while the midship section averages about 462 feet; the surface of paddle is therefore about 1/256 of the midship section.

I will now give the comparative effects of these different propelling surfaces in these two cases.

I have made very accurate experiments upon the comparative rate of the 'Archimedes,' and of the s.p.a.ce pa.s.sed through by the screw, and was enabled to determine this ratio with great certainty.

The average of a number of trials gave the following results:

Rate of ship, 50,867 feet per hour, or about 8? knots.

s.p.a.ce pa.s.sed through by screw due to the number of revolutions, 65,685 feet.

The average rate of vessel being to that of screw therefore as 1 to 12913.

In the performances of the 'Great Western,' upon an average of 20 voyages the ratio has been as 1 to 12997; but, separating from these 20 such voyages as were unusually short or long, and taking only such as, occupying 14, 15, or 16 days, may be considered as giving a fair average of the speed of the ship when not adversely affected by the wind or heavy seas, the average of these 13 voyages give 1 to 1283; and leaving out again those of 16 days, and taking only 8 voyages of 14 and 15 days, the average gives a ratio of 1 to 127187.

Of these, 5 voyages of 15 days give 1 to 129077, and 3 " 14 " 1 to 123901.

The last three, however, were short pa.s.sages and homeward, when the currents and winds have been in favour, and consequently we may safely say that the ratio must be above 1 to 1239; and after making every allowance for the effect of swell and other impediments (the experiments upon the 'Archimedes' being made in smooth water), the average of the 8 (5 of which were homeward voyages with favourable current and wind and the vessel in good trim), giving a ratio of 1 to 127, may be taken as a fair average.

The comparison between the 'Archimedes' and the 'Great Western' will therefore stand thus--

Area of Propelling Difference of Speed of Surface, the Midship Vessel and Propelling Section being 10. Surface, or amount of Slip, the ratio of Vessel being 10.

'Archimedes,' screw 0203 02913 'Great Western,' paddle 0391 02708

Showing an amount of slip in the 'Great Western' very nearly equal to that of the 'Archimedes,' while the ratio of the propelling surface to the midship section in the case of the screw is little more than half that of the paddle-boards in the 'Great Western.'

In taking the average of the eight voyages of the 'Great Western' with favourable winds as I have done, I believe I have made full allowance for the different circ.u.mstances of smooth water and sea; but there is ample room in the above comparison to make even greater allowance for these circ.u.mstances, and still to leave a result which would prove that with _similar areas_ the screw would meet with at least equal, if not a greater resistance, and consequently will slip as little or less than the ordinary paddle-board.

I subjoin a table also, taken from a well-known work on the steam-engine (Tredgold's), of the slip of a number of vessels, of which in every case the surface of paddle immersed is far greater in proportion to the midship section than that of the screw in the 'Archimedes.'

_Rate of Paddle, that of Ship being_ 1.

Medea 1595 Flamer 1483 Firebrand 1501 Columbine 1529 Salamander 1200[200]