ORDER OF WORDS. (Ordigo de Vortoj).

The hints in this chapter should be considered not as hard and fast rules to be learned by heart, but simply as an endeavour to state the usual practice of good writers. The best guide for the student is the study of the best authors, coupled with obedience to his own common sense and feeling for beauty of style and clarity of expression. (See par. 93.)

73. Since Esperanto has eliminated the defects of other languages, and embraced only the good points of each, its flexibility as regards the order of words in a sentence is great. This is princ.i.p.ally owing to the fact that the accusative _N_ clearly distinguishes the object from the subject, to the agreement in case and number of the adjective with the noun it qualifies, and to the fact that prepositions and conjunctions do not interfere with the proper functions of other words. In English the accusative case is distinguished only in the p.r.o.nouns _he_ (_him_), _she_ (_her_), etc.

It is true that English has a possessive case, which in Esperanto is applied only to the correlative group of words ending in _-ES_, viz., ies, kies, etc. (see pars. 106 (_b_), 154); but even this doubtful advantage is lessened by the fact that the apostrophe _S_ in English is useless _in speech_ in the plural when the word ends in _S_. For instance, when one says, "_That is my brothers' house_,"

does one mean it belongs to one brother or more? Certainly, as _written_, with the apostrophe _after_ the _S_, the meaning is two or more, but, as _spoken_, one would naturally suppose it belonged to one brother only. So, to be clear, we should have to fall back on the Esperanto mode of expression, and say, _That is the house of my brothers_ = Tio estas la domo de miaj fratoj; even then Esperanto is clearer than English, for the p.r.o.noun (miaj) is a plural form, whereas in English _my_ is the same for both numbers.

74. Owing to the above advantages, words may be arranged in almost any order in Esperanto, and yet be intelligible; but of course it is advisable that they should follow one another in the natural sequence of our thoughts. The first point is, that the meaning of a sentence should be absolutely clear, and the second, that the sounds should be as harmonious as they can be, combined with clearness of expression.

The student is advised to read the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," by Dr.

Zamenhof, which will familiarize him with the construction of the language, and he will then rapidly acquire a knowledge as to the best order for words.

75. Place of the subject and object.--The subject is usually placed before and the object after the verb.

Examples.--_Mia fratino acetis libron_ = My sister bought a book.

_Rikardo mangas kukon_ = Richard is eating a cake. _Kukon mangas Rikardo_ means exactly the same, and would he quite intelligible, but the mind would not grasp the meaning so rapidly, and it would be absurd, without a reason, to place words in such an unnatural order.

76. Position for emphasis.--Words are often placed out of the usual order, as they are in English, to give emphasis, or for the sake of contrast.

Examples.--_Lin mi renkontis, ne sin_ = Him I met, not her. _Belon mi trovis cie, bonon nenie_ = Beauty I found everywhere, good nowhere.

77. Place of the predicate.--The predicate, or what is said about the subject, is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.--_Li estos kontenta_ (or _Li kontentigos_) _se vi donos al li silingon_ = He will be satisfied if you (will) give him a shilling.

_Si farigus pli sana, se la vetero estus pli varma_, or _Si pli sanigus, se la vetero pli varmigus_ = She would get better if the weather became warmer. But after the word _kiel_ it is preferable to put the predicate before the verb, as:--_Kiel malsana li sajnas!_ = How ill he seems! _Kiel li sajnas malsana_ would be quite possible and correct, but Esperanto inclines to follow the English order of words here, as also in many other cases where in other languages the construction is quite different.

78. Place of the direct complement.--We have stated that the object is placed usually after the verb, but it may equally correctly precede it.

Examples.--_Mi lin malamas_, or, _Mi malamas lin_ = I detest him. If, however, the object be followed by an explanatory phrase, it is better to place it after the verb, as:--_Mi vidis lin kusantan sur la lito_ = I saw him lying on the bed. _Mi renkontis sin, guste kiam si estis eliranta_ = I met her just as she was going out (see par. 29).

79. Place of the indirect complement.--The complement is said to be indirect when it is governed by a preposition (see Syntax, par. 31).

It is usually placed after the verb.

Examples.--_Zorgu pri tio_ = Take care of (about) that. _Alkonduku lin al mi_ = Bring him to me. _La domo estas konstruata de mia patro_ = The house is being built by my father. _Mi gin donis_ (or, _donis gin_) _al li por lia nepino_ = I gave it to him for his granddaughter. Of course, we can place it before the verb if we wish, just as we can in English, and as we probably should in the following phrase:--_El la dirita regulo sekvas, ke...._ = From the said rule, it follows that....

80. Place of circ.u.mstantial complements (see Syntax, par.

32).--These complements, which mark the time, place, manner, cause, etc., of an action, are usually placed first or last in a sentence.

Examples.--_En printempo floroj aperas_ = In spring flowers appear.

_Nur kelke da knaboj ludadis sur la kampo_ = Only a few boys were playing in the field; or, _Sur la kampo ludadis nur kelke da knaboj_.

In a sentence like the following the complement might be placed last, as:--_Mi kriegis pro la dolorego_ = I howled with the intense pain. But in one like the following, where there are two or more circ.u.mstantial complements, they naturally should come first in the sentence, as:--_Kun la haroj malordigitaj, kaj la okuloj eksaltantaj el la kapo de_ (or, _pro_) _teruro, si kuregis lau la strato_ = With dishevelled hair, and eyes starting out of her (the) head with terror, she rushed down the street.

81. The complements of nouns, adjectives, or participial adjectives, usually follow them.

Examples.--_La amo al_ (or, _por_) _Dio_ = Love to (for) G.o.d.

_Mirigita de liaj vortoj, mi eliris el la domo_ = Astonished at his words, I left (went out of) the house.

82. Place of the infinitive.--The infinitive being really a noun, takes its place, according as it is the subject, predicate, or complement. When it is the subject, it generally precedes the verb, unless one wishes to place it otherwise for the sake of emphasis.

Examples.--_Scii estas utile_ = Knowledge (to know) is useful. _Honte estas mensogi_ = It is shameful to lie. If the predicate, it usually follows the verb, as:--_Tion fari estas agi malsage_ = To do that is to act foolishly. If the complement, it follows the word of which it is the complement, as:--_Mi tre deziras paroli kun vi_ = I want very much to speak with you. _Ni trinkas por sensoifigi, kaj ni mangas por satigi nin_ (or, _por satigi_) = We drink to allay thirst (to become without thirst), and we eat to allay hunger (to be satiated). _Mi devas iri hejmen_ = I must go home. _La elekto tion fari restas ce vi_ = The option of doing that rests with you. _Li estos tre felica vin vidi morgau_ = He will be very glad to see you to-morrow. _La deziro kontraudiri_ = The desire of contradicting (to contradict).

83. Place of the noun.--The noun is placed according as it is the subject, predicate, complement (direct, indirect, or circ.u.mstantial), (see pars. 76-80).

84. Place of the adjective.--The position of the adjective varies in national languages. In English it is nearly always placed before the word it qualifies, and we may say that this is generally its place in Esperanto. The following remarks and examples of the four cla.s.ses of adjectives, "qualifying," "predicative," "possessive," and "demonstrative," will give an idea of its position, in accordance with the sense or emphasis wished to be conveyed.

(_a_). A qualifying adjective may either precede or follow the word it qualifies.

(In either position the meaning is precisely the same grammatically.

It is considered by some that it throws a shade of emphasis on the adjective to place it after the noun it qualifies, especially when the adjective is the last word in the sentence.)

Examples.--_La malfelica knabo_ (or, _knabo malfelica_) _perdis sian monujon_ = The unfortunate boy lost his purse. _Li renkontis maljunan virinon_ (or, _maljunulinon_), _tre grasan, kiu portis grandan korbon, plenan de maturaj pomoj_ = He met an old woman, very fat, who was carrying a large basket, full of ripe apples.

(_b_). A predicative adjective is usually placed after the verb, and noun or p.r.o.noun, to which it relates.

Examples.--_La papero estas blanka_ = The paper is white. _Ili trovis la mangajojn bonaj_ = They found the eatables good. _Mi pensis, ke mi vidas ilin mortigantaj la h.o.m.on_ = I thought (that) I saw (see) them killing (that they are killing) the man.

N.B.--A predicative adjective does not agree in case, when its noun or p.r.o.noun is in the accusative (pars. 69 (_a_), and 108 (_b_)).

(_c_). A possessive adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates. If we wish to speak in an affectionate strain, we can place it after the noun.

Examples.--_Mia patrino kaj miaj gefratoj donis al mi donacon en mia naskotago_ = My mother and my brothers and sisters gave me a present on my birthday. _Ne ploru, patrino mia!_ = Do not weep, mother dear!

(_or_, mother mine!). _Johano mia, ne faru tion!_ = John dear, do not do that.

(_d_). A demonstrative adjective usually precedes the word to which it relates.

Examples.--_Tiu sinjorino estas mia fratino_ = That lady is my sister. _Du silingoj ne suficos por aceti tiun libron_ = Two shillings will not buy that book.

(_e_). To show emphasis, adjectives can, as in English, be placed first in phrases.

Examples.--_Bona, malavara kaj gentila, li estas estimata de ciuj_ = Kind, generous and courteous, he was esteemed by all. _Felica estas la h.o.m.o, kiu ne havas malamikojn_ = Happy is the man who has no enemies.

85. Place of the p.r.o.noun.--As in English, a personal p.r.o.noun may follow or precede the verb.

Examples.--_"Jes," diris li_ (or, _li diris_), "_vi estas prava_" = "Yes," said he, "you are right." _"Kial," ekkriis la h.o.m.o, "vi faris tion?"_ = "Why," cried the man, "did you do that?"

86. Place of the verb.--The verb is, as a rule, placed after the subject, but this does not mean that it must follow it immediately, for it can be separated by predicates, complements, and adverbs.

Examples.--_La lingvo Esperanto, kreita de doktoro Zamenhof, estas jam uzata en la tuta mondo civilizita_ = The language Esperanto, created by Dr. Zamenhof, is already used in the whole civilized world. In sentences like the following it is, as in English, often placed before the subject. _"Kien ni iros," diris mi al li, "kiam via amiko alvenos?"_ = "Where shall we go," said I to him, "when your friend arrives (shall arrive)?" _Nun alvenas la horo de la sukceso por la lingvo internacia_ = Now comes the hour of (the) success for the international language. _Aperis sur la monteto la figuro de rajdanto_ = There appeared on the hill the figure of a horseman. (For the place of the Infinitive, see par. 82.)

87. Place of the participle varies as follows:--

(_a_). When forming the compound tenses of verbs, the participle usually follows the auxiliary verb esti, though not necessarily immediately after it (see (_d_)).

Examples.--_Mi estos fininta mian leteron, antau ol li alvenos_ = I shall have finished my letter before he arrives (will arrive). _Si estas tre amata de ciuj_ = She is very much loved by all.

(_b_). In a qualifying or predicative sense participles generally follow their noun or p.r.o.noun.

Examples.--_Mi vidis lin riproceganta kaj batanta la knabon_ = I saw him (that he is) rebuking and beating the boy. _Cu tio estas mia hundo casanta safon?_ = Is that my dog chasing a sheep? _La fraulino leganta la jurnalon estas tre bela_ = The young lady reading the newspaper is very beautiful. _La konstruata domo_ (or, _domo konstruata_) = The house under construction (being constructed). _Mi imagis, ke mi vidas la h.o.m.on kisanta la virinon_ = I fancied (that) I saw the man kissing (that he is kissing) the woman.