wolbyer--wool-buyer

CHAPTER III.

THE CRAFT GILDS.

[Sidenote: _The Merchant Gild and the craftsmen._]

We have seen how the Merchant Gild consisted of all the traders whose business lay in the town. Such an a.s.sociation, though nominally open to all whether landowners or not who could afford to pay the requisite fees, was in essence oligarchical, and this feature became in course of time its most apparent characteristic. We saw, also, how there grew up a large cla.s.s extraneous to the privileged Merchant Gild. This body of outsiders became continually larger and more important. The Welsh ravages in the exposed country would induce numbers to seek the friendly shelter of the town, which by this continuous infusion of fresh blood, found its trade become more and more flourishing, and consequently its attractions to "foreigners" more and more powerful. Each branch of industry was also incessantly receiving large accessions of strength in the shape of fugitive villains from the country-side, who, by residence during a year and a day were released from fear of a reclaim to serfdom. These new settlers, some of whom the advance of time found making considerable strides towards prosperity, seeing themselves shut out from the Town Gild both by the exclusive spirit of that body and by the fact that they themselves were not owners of land within the town[50], but (even in the case of the wealthiest of them) only renters of their shops, were naturally drawn, by the spirit of the times, towards amalgamation[51].

[Sidenote: _Tendencies to union among the latter: Religious,_]

It was natural that men working at the same trade,--living probably in the same neighbourhood[52], and during intervals of rest exchanging gossip from adjacent door-steps,--meeting one another in all the actions of daily life and with thoughts and language running in similar grooves,--should also desire to be not separated in worship. Likewise, in time of trouble, when death brought gloom to the house of a fellow-workman, or when through accident or misfortune he failed to appear at his accustomed place in yard or workshop, it was by the ordinary promptings of nature that his brother craftsmen came to offer their sympathy and help. And so we find the men of the various trades forming themselves into fraternities, in order to pour united supplications for Divine a.s.sistance and to offer thanks in common for Divine favour[53]. The Tailors and Shoemakers had their chantries in St Chad's Church, where the Weavers also had their especial altar, maintaining in addition a light before the shrine of St Winifred in the Abbey of the Holy Cross. The Drapers of the town early became drawn together in a religious brotherhood, the chapel of which in the collegiate church of Our Lady was the object of frequent and solicitous care when the fraternity of the Holy Trinity was definitively changed into the Worshipful Company of the Drapers. In the church of St Juliana the altar of the Shearmen stood in the north aisle, where a chaplain said their special ma.s.s for a yearly stipend of 4[54].

It was the pride of the Gilds to expend the best efforts of their wealth and skill on the embellishment and maintenance of their chapel upon which they were able to look as their own. Their worldly possessions at no one time reached a figure high enough for them to provide a large endowment for church or chantry, but the thankofferings of the years sufficed for all current expenses. The fixed stipend was small, but the fabric, raised and adorned as funds allowed, was commodious and beautiful[55].

It was to this ever-present desire to consecrate some portion of the yearly profits of trade to the honour of Him who had given the increase, that the annual pageant owed its pomp. The Corpus Christi procession was an occasion of especial prominence at Shrewsbury, where the Gild charters and records are full of minute regulations for its order.

[Sidenote: _Social,_]

The a.s.sociations of fellow workmen for the purposes of religion also took the form of clubs for mutual benefit and a.s.sistance. The Drapers were maintaining their school and schoolmaster in 1492[56]; their almshouses were only rivalled by those of the Mercers. The maintenance of poor and decayed members was always one of the most prominent of the objects of a.s.sociation. Attendance at the last offices by the grave of a deceased brother, and remembrance of him in prayer, were likewise universal duties of brethren. Edward VI.'s confiscation of Gild property broke down in all the towns a great system of poor-relief which had hitherto freed the government of that most difficult problem. Nor did the Gilds wait until a brother was completely crushed before they came to his a.s.sistance.

Fluctuations of trade then as now sometimes brought occasions of temporary embarra.s.sment. But "the false and abominable contract of Usury ... which the more subtily to deceive the people they call 'exchange' or 'chevisance,' whereas it might more truly be called 'mescheaunce,'" ...

was rightly looked upon as unworthy of fellow-workers for the common good, "seeing that it ruins the honour and soul of the agent, and sweeps away the goods and property of him who appears to be accommodated, and destroys all manner of right and lawful traffick[57]." The common chest of the Gild was therefore at the service of the brethren[58], not, as in the days of degeneracy, to aid the capitalist in grinding down his workmen, but to keep the craftsman from the clutches of the usurer.

[Sidenote: _Commercial._]

Out of these religious fraternities and social clubs developed what we may more correctly term Craft Gilds; or to speak more strictly we should perhaps rather say that many of these societies began to add to their social and religious objects an additional one, namely trade regulation[59]. They would be encouraged in this direction by the action of the Merchant Gild, or its successor the munic.i.p.al authority, which, as the expansion of trade necessitated specialisation, was glad to depute its powers to such a.s.sociations[60].

[Sidenote: _Early Craft Gilds._]

[Sidenote: _Effect of their growth on Merchant Gild._]

The earliest mention of Craft Gilds is in the reign of Henry I., when notice is found of the Weavers of London, Oxford, Winchester, Lincoln and Huntingdon, the Cordwainers of Oxford and the Fullers of Winchester[61].

They became more common and more influential as the development of industry was fostered by the central government. This was especially the policy of Edward I. and Edward III. By the end of the 14th century the Craft Gilds become numerous. As they took over the duties and functions of the Merchant Gild the existence of the latter was rendered to a considerable extent superfluous, and the merging of the Gilda Mercatoria into the Communa became not only inevitable but convenient and natural.

During the 14th and 15th centuries, when the Craft Gilds attained their highest power, the decay of the Merchant Gilds became very marked.

[Sidenote: _The later "Merchant Gild."_]

In some places where this happened the name of the Merchant Gild wholly disappeared. In others where the expression continued in use the inst.i.tution changed its character and became simply a religious fraternity. In a few instances the select corporation alone inherited the name: in some the whole body of freemen did so. Again, there are examples of a survival of the expression as applied to the whole body of tradesmen, that is the whole of the members of the various Gilds[62]. A Patent of Queen Elizabeth, dated 1586, thus alludes to the aggregate of unions under the collective name of "the Gild of Burgesses of Shrewsbury." In the same way we read of "the several companies belonging to the guild merchant of Reading," "the Guild of Merchants in Andever, which Guild is divided into three several Fellowships," etc. Just as the Merchant Gild differentiated itself into Craft Gilds, the Craft Gilds afterwards again in the aggregate took the name and style of the Merchant Gild.

[Sidenote: _Ident.i.ty of interests of Corporation and Gilds seen in Police regulations;_]

If such additional proof were needed this action on their part might be adduced in support of the a.s.sertion, which cannot be too strongly emphasised or too often repeated, that in England there was no conflict between the Merchant Gild and the Craft Gilds. Though these latter a.s.sociations had grown up in vindication, as it might seem, of the principle of free amalgamation in opposition to oligarchical exclusiveness, and although it was evident that as they increased the Merchant Gild must decline, yet there was at no time any idea of antagonism between the two kinds of authority within the town. On the contrary internal police was very materially a.s.sisted by the Gilds[63].

They carried on the good work which the Merchant Gild had inaugurated. Not only were dissensions among combrethren to be brought before the Wardens and Stewards instead of forming the occasion of unseemly brawls and disturbances, but one of the objects for which the a.s.sociations existed is expressly stated to be "for the weale, rest and tranquilitie of the same towne, and for good rule to be kept there[64]." With this object in view the composition of the Tailors and Skinners (1478) contains several articles which show how materially the officers of the Gild a.s.sisted the bailiffs of the town[65].

[Sidenote: _evidenced by supervision of munic.i.p.al authorities,_]

The Gild officers, though freely elected by the combrethren took their oaths of office before the bailiffs of the town, who also secured, if necessary, the enforcement of the ordinances of the Gilds[66]. The town authorities exercised, too, a general supervision: it seems to have been the rule for the compositions to be annually (or periodically) inspected; and for new regulations to be subject to munic.i.p.al approval[67].

[Sidenote: _(therefore supported by them;) shown by Charters,_]

One consequence of this authorisation by the town officials was that the latter ceased to take cognisance of trade affairs except indirectly through the Gilds; another was that the Gilds were supported by the town authorities. In order to carry out the rules of the Gilds it was imperative that all men of a trade should belong to the particular Gild of that craft. For there might come men carrying on trade in the town unwilling to submit to the rules framed for ensuring good work and protecting the interests of the craft. These it would be impossible to check until the Gild had been recognised and authorised by the crown or the corporation, and so had obtained power to enforce its ordinances in a legitimate way. It was in this manner that the necessity arose for obtaining a charter[68]. The Fraternities, which in their earlier stages had existed as voluntary a.s.sociations, now received authoritative recognition, by virtue of charters obtained from the king by the aid of the corporation. The composition of the Tailors and Skinners (1478) shows the company and the corporation in the closest connection; that of the Mercers, granted by Edward Prince of Wales, Son of Edward IV., in 1480-81, is countersigned by the bailiffs.

The necessity for this authoritative recognition is clearly seen in the continually recurring ordinance calling upon all men of the craft to join the Gild. If the Gild had not been supported by royal and munic.i.p.al authority it would have been impossible for it to have carried out its aims; as it was the task was sufficiently difficult.

[Sidenote: _and Oaths._]

The unity of interests of the Gilds and the corporation is further shown by the words of the oaths. The wardens' oath of the company of Glovers ran as follows.

"You shalbe true to our Sov'aigne lord King ... his heirs and successors and obedient to the Bailiffs of this town for the time being and their successors. And you shall well and truly execute and p'forme your office of Wardens of Glovers, Poynt-makers, pursers, ffelmongers, Lethersellers and pa'hment-makers for this yeare according to the true extent and meaning of your composition and of all and singular articles and agreements therein expressed and declared to the uttermost of your power. So helpe you G.o.d."

The oaths of the other officers, and of the Freemen, contained like promises[69].

[Sidenote: _Composition of Gilds._]

[Sidenote: _Masters._]

[Sidenote: _Apprentices._]

[Sidenote: _Journeymen._]

[Sidenote: _Women._]

In the composition of the Trade Gilds there was no attempt to erect a monopoly. All workers of the Craft except such as could make separate terms with the corporation[70] were not only permitted to join the Gild, but were compelled to do so. The members included Apprentices and Journeymen as well as Masters[71]. Women too were not debarred from joining[72], though they, like the Apprentices and Journeymen[73], took no part in the business of administration[74]. The charter of the Drapers[75]

speaks of both brethren and sistren, and the list of members as given on the occasions of "cessments" shows women-members, both wives of combrethren, independent tradeswomen, and widows of deceased brothers.

[Sidenote: _Officers._]

In the election of their officers the English Gilds differed materially from similar a.s.sociations on the continent. In England the choice appears to have been always unrestricted[76]. Refusal to accept office when elected exposed the reluctant brother to a money fine. The oaths of the officers, as we have seen, contained declarations of loyalty to the crown and munic.i.p.al authority, and in this way we may account for the absence of _Masters_ among the officials of the Shrewsbury Gilds. The place of the Master seems to have been filled, in some sort at least, by the bailiffs of the town. At any rate none of the many Gilds of Shrewsbury ever had a Master at the head of their officers.

The _Wardens_ were uniformly two in number, freely elected by all the brethren from such as were "the most worthiest and discreetest and which will and best can[77]." That it was not altogether a needless precaution to order that the elected wardens should be members of the Gild appears from the later abuses which arose, wardens being sometimes chosen from without the number of the combrethren[78]. The functions of these, the princ.i.p.al officers, were generally to carry into effect the objects of the Gild. To do this they possessed the right of search for inadequate materials or unsuitable tools, and a general supervision over workmen to secure competency. The composing of quarrels among combrethren was a prominent part of their duties.

[Sidenote: _a.s.sistants._]

The Board of a.s.sistants which exercised so harmful an influence over the companies in later days is found at Shrewsbury at an early date[79]. The composition of the Tailors and Skinners, 1478 A.D., speaks of the "Fower men ordeigned to the said Wardens to be a.s.sistant in counsel in good counsel giving." They reappear in 1563 as the Four a.s.sistants "for advising them [the Wardens] in the Government of the Gild[80]." In this particular as in so many others the Gilds of Shrewsbury seem to have been distinguished by a greater desire to widen the area of the governing body than was the case with the great companies of London and elsewhere. For the language of some bye-laws of the corporation pa.s.sed in 18 Edward IV., seems to imply that the "Four Men" were common to all the companies. In the Gilds of most provincial towns such a.s.sistants no doubt shared in the government from early years.

The _Stewards_ were two in number. At a later date they were nominated by the Wardens[81], though in earlier times probably elective. Their particular duties nowhere very clearly appear. They seem to have a.s.sisted the Wardens and Four Men in hearing and examining of "all manner of matters, causes and controv'sies which shall happen amongst the brethren[82]."

The _Beadle_ summoned members to meetings and officiated in whatever of formality was observed in them. He would keep the door of the Hall, and see that none but brethren were admitted within the privileged chamber.

His was the duty of providing that due order and regularity was observed in the proceedings, and, if necessary, of carrying into effect the decisions of the a.s.sembly against refractory members. In the annual Procession we can well imagine that the Beadles of the respective companies would bear themselves with no common pride. Their duties also included the summoning of members to weddings and funerals of brethren.

The Mercers' composition of 1424 carefully details the duties of the _Searcher_. He, as also the Beadle, was usually nominated by the Wardens, Four Men and Stewards jointly, and, as his name implied, was charged with bringing to the notice of the Gild anything contrary to its rules or prejudicial to its interests.

A _Clerk_ is also mentioned, who drew up indentures of apprenticeship and kept the Gild registers. At a later period the office of _Treasurer_ was introduced and became of considerable importance.

[Sidenote: _Meetings._]