For Susan, Felix and Freya

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

Doc.u.ments from the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle are quoted with the gracious permission of Her Majesty the Queen. It was Sir Evelyn de Rothschild, chairman of N. M. Rothschild & Sons, who originally suggested that the writing of a history of the firm would be a good way to mark the bicentenary of his great-great-grandfather Nathan Mayer Rothschild's arrival in England; I owe a special debt to him for opening the Rothschild Archive to me. Amschel Rothschild also took a keen interest in the project before his tragic death in 1996. Lord Rothschild, Edmund de Rothschild, Leopold de Rothschild and Baron David de Rothschild were all kind enough to agree to be interviewed. They and others also took the trouble to read and comment on substantial parts of the text. I am grateful to Miriam Rothschild for her corrections to an early version of the epilogue, and to Baron Guy de Rothschild for his looking over those pa.s.sages relating to the recent history of the French bank and family. Emma Rothschild read and commented on the first draft in its entirety, a considerable distraction from her own research and writing for which I thank her. Lionel de Rothschild saved me from innumerable slips by reading and meticulously annotating the first draft, a labour for which this acknowledgement seems a very meagre wage. I should also like to thank the Earl and Countess of Rosebery for giving me access to the private papers of the 5th Earl, and for their kind hospitality at Dalmeny.

A number of directors and employees at N. M. Rothschild & Sons have also a.s.sisted me. In particular, I should like to thank Tony Chapman, Russell Edey, Grant Manheim, Bernard Myers and David Sullivan, as well as Lorna Lindsay, Hazel Matthews and Oleg Sheiko.

A project such as this depends heavily on the expertise and toil of archivists and librarians. I owe a special debt of grat.i.tude to those at the Rothschild Archive: Victor Gray and Melanie Aspey, and their a.s.sistants Tamsin Black and Mandy Bell, who have uncomplainingly put up with my erratic work methods and unpredictable demands. I should also like to thank their predecessors, Simone Mace and Ann Andlaw. Sheila de Bellaigue, Registrar of the Royal Archives at Windsor Castle, was a model of efficiency; as were Henry Gillett and Sarah Millard at the Bank of England and Robin Harcourt-Williams at Hatfield House. I should like to record my grat.i.tude to Dr M. M. Muchamedjanov and his a.s.sistants at the Centre for the Preservation of Historical Doc.u.mentary Collections in Moscow. In addition, I and my research a.s.sistants have received invaluable help from the archivists and librarians at the Anglo-Jewish Archives, University of Southampton; the Archives Nationales, Paris; the Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv, Munich; the Birmingham University Library; the Bodleian Library; the British Library; the Cambridge University Library; the Geheime Staatsarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin-Dahlem; the Hessische Staatsarchiv, Marburg; the House of Lords Record Office; the Inst.i.tut fur Stadtgeschichte, Frankfurt; the Jewish Museum, Frankfurt; the Leo Baeck Inst.i.tute, New York; the National Library of Scotland; Rhodes House, Oxford; The Times Archive; and the Thuringische Hauptstaatsarchiv, Weimar.

See "Note: On Being an 'Authorised' Author" at the end of the acknowledgements.

Lord Weidenfeld was the match-maker who suggested that I might like to write this book and for that (and many other kindnesses) I shall always be in his debt. I am indebted too to Anthony Cheetham at Orion for investing in me and offering only encouragement as deadlines pa.s.sed and the ma.n.u.script overshot the agreed length. Ion Trewin has been and is a superb editor; the same goes for Peter James, my copy-editor. I should also like to thank Rachel Leyshon, Francis Gotto and Carl Stott for their contributions.

My agents, successively Gill Coleridge and Georgina Capel, provided all the shrewd advice and tenacious negotiation an author could wish for.

This book could not have been written in five years-indeed, it could not have been written-without a great deal of research a.s.sistance. I must make special mention of Mordechai Zucker, whose unique ability to decipher the archaic Hebrew script used by the first and second generations of Rothschilds was a sine qua non sine qua non. Thanks to the translations which he had been working on for years before I came on the scene, and through his tape-recorded readings of the original Judendeutsch, Judendeutsch, Mordechai has been the eyes through which I have been able to read the most important of all the doc.u.ments on which this book is based. Nor would I have got far with the correspondence of the French Rothschilds without the invaluable Abi gail Green, who also hunted down long-lost literary allusions to the Rothschilds. Edward Lipman did great things on financial questions; while Rainer Liedtke provided vital expertise on Jewish history. Harry Seekings and Glen O'Hara slaved over nineteenth-century financial statistics. Andrew Vereker chased Natty Rothschild's dispersed political correspondence. I should also like to thank Katherine Astill, Elizabeth Emerson, Bernhard Fulda, Tobias Jones and Suzanne Nicholas. Mordechai has been the eyes through which I have been able to read the most important of all the doc.u.ments on which this book is based. Nor would I have got far with the correspondence of the French Rothschilds without the invaluable Abi gail Green, who also hunted down long-lost literary allusions to the Rothschilds. Edward Lipman did great things on financial questions; while Rainer Liedtke provided vital expertise on Jewish history. Harry Seekings and Glen O'Hara slaved over nineteenth-century financial statistics. Andrew Vereker chased Natty Rothschild's dispersed political correspondence. I should also like to thank Katherine Astill, Elizabeth Emerson, Bernhard Fulda, Tobias Jones and Suzanne Nicholas.

The finished text owes much to the critical comments of other historians on earlier drafts. David Landes acted on the family's behalf as a kind of editor-c.u.m-Dok torvater. It has been a rare privilege to be so attentively read by one of the acknowledged masters of modern economic history. I must also thank another master in the field, Barry Supple, for finding the time to read the first draft; as well as my old friend Jonathan Steinberg, who generously read the early chapters at a very difficult time. Fritz Backhaus and Helga Krohn of the Jewish Museum in Frankfurt gave me invaluable material which they had gathered for their outstanding exhibition; I warmly thank them and their a.s.sistant Rainer Schlott. Others who have read and commented on individual chapters include Robert Evans, Gerry Feldman, John Grigg, Lord Jenkins of Hillhead, Rainer Liedtke, Reinhard Liehr, Wolfgang Mommsen, Susannah Morris, Aubrey Newman, Sir John Plumb, Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann and Andrew Roberts. I am grateful to them all for these good works, as well as to all those who have commented on conference and seminar papers I have given on aspects of Rothschild history. I would also like to thank Amos Elon for scholarly comradeship in Moscow.

The Princ.i.p.al and Fellows of Jesus College, Oxford, have tolerated my absence or absent-mindedness throughout the five years this book has taken to write, as have the other members of the Oxford Modern History Faculty. I am especially grateful to my colleague Felicity Heal, who has often had to shoulder burdens we are supposed to share, as well as to Dafna Clifford, Don Fowler and Patrick McGuinness. I have also been indirectly helped by the college's staff; others will, I hope, forgive me if I single out Vivien Bowyer and Robert Haynes, who have regularly acted beyond the call of duty. I should also like to thank Doris Clifton of the Modern Languages Faculty. Nor could I omit the indispensable Amanda Hall.

Finally, I thank Susan, Felix and Freya, for whom this book was written, and to whom it is dedicated.

Note: On Being an "Authorised" Author.

It may be as well to state explicitly that those members of the Rothschild family who read parts of the early ma.n.u.script were not not acting as censors. From the outset, it was formally agreed that I would be ent.i.tled to quote freely from any material in the Rothschild Archive in London predating March 1915 (the date of the 1st Lord Rothschild's death); and, of course, from any other archives and private collections of papers as far as their curators gave me permission to do so. It was also agreed that N. M. Rothschild & Sons would have the right to comment on the ma.n.u.script. This arrangement has worked far better in practice than I could ever have hoped. For the avoidance of doubt: I have been able throughout to abide by the Rankean principle of trying to write history as far as possible "as it actually was," and the comments I have received from members of the family have only helped me in this attempt. Their commitment to historical accuracy has deeply impressed me. If the end-product falls short of Ranke's ideal, I hope it is only because relevant doc.u.ments have not been read for lack of time, have not survived or never existed. Errors are, of course, my fault alone. acting as censors. From the outset, it was formally agreed that I would be ent.i.tled to quote freely from any material in the Rothschild Archive in London predating March 1915 (the date of the 1st Lord Rothschild's death); and, of course, from any other archives and private collections of papers as far as their curators gave me permission to do so. It was also agreed that N. M. Rothschild & Sons would have the right to comment on the ma.n.u.script. This arrangement has worked far better in practice than I could ever have hoped. For the avoidance of doubt: I have been able throughout to abide by the Rankean principle of trying to write history as far as possible "as it actually was," and the comments I have received from members of the family have only helped me in this attempt. Their commitment to historical accuracy has deeply impressed me. If the end-product falls short of Ranke's ideal, I hope it is only because relevant doc.u.ments have not been read for lack of time, have not survived or never existed. Errors are, of course, my fault alone.

Niall Ferguson

Pickup from old film

INTRODUCTION.

Reality and Myth.

I.

Banking," the 3rd Lord Rothschild once remarked, "consists essentially of facilitating the movement of money from Point A, where it is, to Point B, where it is needed." There is a certain elementary truth in this apercu, even if it did reflect Victor Rothschild's personal lack of enthusiasm for finance. But if the history of the firm founded by his great-great-grandfather two centuries ago consisted of nothing more than getting money from A to B, it would make dull reading. It should not.

All banks have histories, though not all have their histories researched and written; only the Rothschilds, however, have a mythology. Ever since the second decade of the nineteenth century, there has been speculation about the origins and extent of the family's wealth; about the social implications of their meteoric upward mobility; about their political influence, not only in the five countries where there were Rothschild houses but throughout the world; about their Judaism. The resulting mythology has proved almost as long-lived as the firm of N. M. Rothschild & Sons itself. The name "Rothschild" (which translates from the original German as "Redshield") may be less well known today than it was a hundred years ago, when, as Chekhov remarked, a moribund Russian coffin-maker could use it ironically as a nickname for a poor Jewish musician.1 But most readers will recognise it, if only from its still fairly regular appearances in the press. The bank may not be the financial giant it was in the century after 1815 and the family may be a great deal more dispersed and diffuse, but the name continues to attract attention-some of it prurient. Even those who know nothing about finance and care less are likely to have come across it at least once in their lives. Thanks to an apparently hereditary apt.i.tude for zoology and horticulture, there are no fewer than 153 species or sub-species of insect which bear the name "Rothschild," as well as fifty-eight birds, eighteen mammals (including the Baringo Giraffe, But most readers will recognise it, if only from its still fairly regular appearances in the press. The bank may not be the financial giant it was in the century after 1815 and the family may be a great deal more dispersed and diffuse, but the name continues to attract attention-some of it prurient. Even those who know nothing about finance and care less are likely to have come across it at least once in their lives. Thanks to an apparently hereditary apt.i.tude for zoology and horticulture, there are no fewer than 153 species or sub-species of insect which bear the name "Rothschild," as well as fifty-eight birds, eighteen mammals (including the Baringo Giraffe, Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi) and fourteen plants (including a rare slipper orchid, Paphiopedilum rothschildianum Paphiopedilum rothschildianum and a flame lily, and a flame lily, Gloriosa rothschildiana Gloriosa rothschildiana)-to say nothing of three fish, three spiders and two reptiles. The family's almost equally recurrent enthusiasm for the pleasures of the table has also bestowed the name on a souffle (made with glace fruit, brandy and vanilla) and a savoury (prawns, cognac and Gruyere on toast). There are towns and numerous streets named after members of the family in Israel, Rothschild-owned vineyards at Mouton and Lafite whose wines are drunk the world over, numerous Rothschild-built houses from the Vale of Aylesbury to the Riviera-and there is even a Rothschild Island in the Antarctic. Pieces of music have been dedicated to Rothschilds by Chopin and Rossini, as have books by Balzac and Heine. The family is as famous in the art world for its many collections (some of which can be seen in public galleries) as it is in horse-racing circles for its past Derby winners. In the course of writing this book, I have met few people who had not heard at least one Rothschild anecdote-most commonly the myth of the immense profits Nathan Mayer Rothschild made by speculating on the outcome of the battle of Waterloo; almost as often the story of the purchase of the Suez Ca.n.a.l shares which Disraeli did his best to make famous. And, for those who know no history, books of Jewish humour still contain Rothschild jokes. There have even been two Rothschild films, a play2 and a bizarre, though moderately successful, Broadway musical. and a bizarre, though moderately successful, Broadway musical.

It should be said right away that this book has very little to say about giraffes, orchids, souffles, vintage wines or islands in the Antarctic. It is primarily a book about banking; and here some words of explanation and rea.s.surance are in order for those readers who are more interested in what rich families do with their wealth than in how they get it.

In fact, the firm of N. M. Rothschild & Sons was not technically a bank at all-at least not according to that great Victorian financial journalist Walter Bagehot's definition in his Lombard Street Lombard Street (1873). "A foreigner," he wrote, "would be apt to think that they [the Rothschilds] were bankers if anyone was. But this only ill.u.s.trates the essential difference between our English notions of banking and the continental": (1873). "A foreigner," he wrote, "would be apt to think that they [the Rothschilds] were bankers if anyone was. But this only ill.u.s.trates the essential difference between our English notions of banking and the continental": Messrs Rothschild are immense capitalists, having, doubtless, much borrowed money in their hands. But they do not take 100 payable on demand, and pay it back in cheques of 5 each, and that is our English banking. The borrowed money they have is in large sums, borrowed for terms more or less long. English bankers deal with an aggregate of small sums, all of which are repayable on short notice, or on demand. And the way the two employ their money is different also. A foreigner thinks "an Exchange business"-that is, the buying and selling bills on foreign countries-a main part of banking . . . But the ma.s.s of English country bankers . . . would not know how carry through a great "Exchange operation" . . . They would as soon think of turning silk merchants. The Exchange trade is carried on by a small and special body of foreign bill-brokers, of whom Messrs Rothschild are the greatest . . . [The] family are not English bankers, either by the terms on which they borrow money, or the mode in which they employ it.

Having begun his business career in England as a textile exporter, Nathan Mayer Rothschild was technically a merchant who came to specialise in various financial services. He himself said in 1817: "[M]y business . . . consists entirely in Government transactions & Bank operations"-but by the latter he probably meant operations with the Bank of England. He did not mean the kind of deposit banking which Bagehot called "our English banking" and which remains the princ.i.p.al activity of the big high-street banks today.

Nor can N. M. Rothschild & Sons really be regarded as an autonomous firm: until some time between 1905 and 1909 it was one of a group of Rothschild "houses" run by a family partnership-though the London house is the only one of these which has had an uninterrupted existence until the present day (Rothschild & Cie Banque is only an indirect descendant of the original Paris house, which was nationalised in 1981). At its zenith from the 1820s until the 1860s, this group had five distinct establishments. In addition to Nathan's in London, there was the original firm of M. A. Rothschild & Sohne in Frankfurt (after 1817, M. A. von Rothschild & Sohne), which his eldest brother Amschel took over when their father Mayer Amschel died; de Rothschild Freres in Paris, founded by his youngest brother James; and two subsidiaries of the Frankfurt house, C. M. von Rothschild in Naples, run by the fourth of the brothers, Carl, and S. M. von Rothschild in Vienna, managed by the second-born Salomon. Up until the 1860s, the five houses worked together so closely that it is impossible to discuss the history of one without discussing the history of all five: they were, to all intents and purposes, the component parts of a multinational bank. Even as late as the first decade of the twentieth century, the system of partnerships continued to function in such a way that "English" Rothschilds had a financial stake in the Paris house and "French" Rothschilds a stake in the London house. Unlike modern multinationals, however, this was always a family firm, with executive decision-making strictly monopolised by the partners who (until 1960) were exclusively drawn from the ranks of male Rothschilds.

Perhaps the most important point to grasp about this multinational partnership is that, for most of the century between 1815 and 1914, it was easily the biggest bank in the world. Strictly in terms of their combined capital, the Rothschilds were in a league of their own until, at the earliest, the 1880s. The twentieth century has no equivalent: not even the biggest of today's international banking corporations enjoys the relative supremacy enjoyed by the Rothschilds in their heyday-just as no individual today owns as large a share of the world's wealth as Nathan and James as individuals owned in the period from the mid-1820s until the 1860s (see appendix 1). The economic history of capitalism is therefore incomplete until some attempt has been made to explain how the Rothschilds became so phenomenally rich. Was there a "secret" to their unparalleled success? There are numerous apocryphal business maxims attributed to the Rothschilds-for example, to hold a third of one's wealth in securities; a third in real estate; and a third in jewels and artworks, to treat the stock exchange like a cold shower ("quick in, quick out"); or to leave the last 10 per cent to someone else-but none of them has any serious explanatory value.

What exactly was the business the Rothschilds did? And what use did they make of the immense economic leverage they could exercise? To answer these questions properly it is necessary to understand something of nineteenth-century public finance; for it was by lending to governments-or by speculating in existing government bonds-that the Rothschilds made a very large part of their colossal fortune.

II.

All nineteenth-century states occasionally ran budget deficits and some almost always did-that is, their tax revenues were usually insufficient to meet their expenditures. In this, of course, they were little different from eighteenth-century states. And, as before 1800, it was war and the preparation for war which generally precipitated the biggest increases in expenditure; poor harvests (or troughs in the trade cycle) also caused periodic revenue shortfalls by reducing receipts from taxes. These deficits, though often relatively small in relation to national income, were not easily financed. National capital markets were not very developed and an internationally integrated capital market was only gradually taking shape with its first real centre in Amsterdam. For most states, borrowing was expensive-that is, the interest they had to pay on loans was relatively high-because they were perceived by investors as unreliable creditors. Budget deficits were thus often financed either by the sale of royal a.s.sets (land or offices), or by inflation if the government was in a position to debase the currency. A third possibility, of course, was to raise new taxes, but, as had been the case in the seventeenth century and as was to be the case throughout the nineteenth century too, major changes in tax regimes generally necessitated some kind of political consent via representative inst.i.tutions. The French Revolution was precipitated by just such a bid for new revenue from the Estates General, after all other attempts at fiscal reform had failed to keep up with the costs of the crown's military activities. One exception to the rule was the British state, which since the later seventeenth century had developed a relatively sophisticated system of public borrowing (the national debt) and monetary management (the Bank of England). Another exception was the small German state of Hesse-Ka.s.sel, which was effectively run by its ruler at a profit through the hiring out of his subjects as mercenaries to other states. Involvement in the management of his huge investment portfolio was one of the first steps Mayer Amschel Rothschild took in order to become a banker rather than a mere coin dealer (his original business).

The period 1793-1815 was characterised by recurrent warfare, the fiscal side-effects of which were profound. Firstly, unprecedented expenditures precipitated inflation in all the combatants' economies, the most extreme form of which was the collapse of the a.s.signat currency in France. The European currencies-including the pound sterling after 1797-were thrown into turmoil. Secondly, the disruptions of war (for example, the French occupation of Amsterdam and Napoleon's Continental System) created opportunities for making large profits on highly risky transactions such as smuggling textiles and bullion and managing the investments of exiled rulers. Thirdly, the transfer of large subsidies from Britain to her continental allies necessitated innovations in the cross-border payments system which had never before had to cope with such sums. It was in this highly volatile context that the Rothschilds made the decisive leap from running two modest firms-a small merchant bank in Frankfurt and a cloth exporters in Manchester-to running a multinational financial partnership.

Nor did the final defeat of Napoleon end the need for international financial services; on the contrary, the business of settling the debts and indemnities left over from the war dragged on for most of the 1820s. Moreover, new fiscal needs quickly arose from the political crises which beset the Spanish and Ottoman Empires in this period. At the same time, fiscal retrenchment and monetary stabilisation in Britain created a need for new forms of investment for those who had grown accustomed to putting their money in high-yielding British bonds during the war years. It was this need which Nathan and his brothers successfully met. The system they developed enabled British investors (and other rich "capitalists" in Western Europe) to invest in the debts of those states by purchasing internationally tradeable, fixed-interest bearer (that is, transferable) bonds. The significance of this system for nineteenth-century history cannot be over-emphasised. For this growing international bond market brought together Europe's true "capitalists": that elite of people wealthy enough to be able to tie up money in such a.s.sets, and shrewd enough to appreciate the advantages of such a.s.sets as compared with traditional forms of holding wealth (land, venal office and so on). Bonds were liquid. They could be bought and sold five and a half days out of seven (excluding holidays) on the major bourses of Europe and traded informally at other times and in other places. And they were capable of accruing large capital gains. Their only disadvantage was, of course, that they were also capable of suffering large capital losses.

What determined the ups and downs of the nineteenth-century bond market? The answer to this question is central to any understanding of the history of the Rothschild bank. Obviously, economic factors played an important part-in particular, the conditions for short-term borrowing and the appeal of alternative private securities. But the most important factor was political confidence: the confidence of investors (and especially of big market-making investors like the Rothschilds) in the ability of the bond-issuing states to continue to meet their obligations-that is, to pay the interest on their bonds. There were only really two things which might cause them not to do so: war, which would increase their expenditures and decrease their tax revenues; and internal instability, ranging from a change of ministry to full-blown revolution, which would not only dent their revenues but might also bring to power a new and fiscally imprudent government. It was for indications of either of these possible crises, with their intimations of default, that the markets-and the Rothschilds more than anybody-watched.

This explains the importance they always attached to having up-to-date political and economic news. Three things would give an investor an edge over his rival: closeness to the centre of political life, the source of news; the speed with which he could receive news of events in states far and near; and the ability to manipulate the transmission of that news to other investors. This explains why the Rothschilds spent so much time, energy and money maintaining the best possible relations with the leading political figures of the day. It also explains why they carefully developed a network of salaried agents in other key financial markets, whose job it was not only to trade on their behalf but also to keep them supplied with the latest financial and political news. And it explains why they constantly strove to accelerate the speed with which information could be relayed from their agents to them. From an early stage, they relied on their own system of couriers and relished their ability to obtain political news ahead of the European diplomatic services. They also occasionally used carrier-pigeons to transmit the latest stock prices and exchange rates from one market to another. Before the development of the telegraph (and later the telephone), which tended to "democratise" news by making it generally available more rapidly, the Rothschilds' communications network gave them an important advantage over their compet.i.tors. Even after they lost this edge, they continued to exercise an influence over the financial press through which news reached a wider public.

Information about the chances of international or domestic instability fed directly into the bond market, leading to the daily fluctuations in prices and yields which investors followed so closely. However, the relationship between politics and the bond market went the other way too. For the movements of prices of existing government stock-the products of past fiscal policy-had an important bearing on present and future policy. To put it simply, if a government wished to borrow more by issuing more bonds, a fall in the price (rise in the yield) of its existing bonds was a serious discouragement. For this reason, bond prices had a significance which historians have too seldom spelt out. They were, it might be said, a kind of daily opinion poll, an expression of confidence in a given regime. Of course, they were an opinion poll based on a highly unrepresentative sample by modern, democratic standards. Only the wealthy-the "capitalists"-got to vote. But then political life in the nineteenth century was itself undemocratic. Indeed, the kind of people who held government bonds were, very roughly speaking, the people who were represented politically, even if there was sometimes tension between those property owners whose a.s.sets were held primarily in the form of land or buildings and the bondholders whose portfolios were composed mainly of paper securities. These capitalists were thus to a large extent Europe's political cla.s.s and their opinions were the opinions that mattered in a stratified, undemocratic society. If investors bid up the price of a government's stock, that government could feel secure. If they dumped its stock, that government was quite possibly living on borrowed time as well as money.

The singular beauty of the bond market was that virtually every state (including, as the century advanced, all the new nation states and colonies) had, sooner or later, to come to it; and most states had sizeable amounts of tradable debt in circulation. The varying fortunes of government bonds provide a vital insight into the political history of the period. They are also the key to understanding the extent and limits of the power of a bank like Rothschilds, which for much of the nineteenth century was the prime market-maker for such bonds. Indeed, it can be argued that, by modifying the existing system for government borrowing to make bonds more easily tradable, the Rothschilds actually created the international bond market in its modern form. As early as 1830 a German writer observed how, thanks to innovations in the form of bonds introduced by the Rothschilds since 1818, each possessor of state paper [can] . . . collect the interest at his convenience at several different places without any effort. The House of Rothschild in Frankfurt pays the interest on the Austrian metalliques, the Neapolitan rentes and the interest of the Anglo-Neapolitan obligations in either London, Naples or Paris, wherever it suits.

At the core of this book, then, is the international bond market which the Rothschilds did so much to develop, though due attention is also paid to the many other forms of financial business the Rothschilds did: bullion broking and refining, accepting and discounting commercial bills, direct trading in commodities, foreign exchange dealing and arbitrage, even insurance. In addition to the inevitable web of credits and debits with other firms which arose from these activities, the Rothschilds also offered to a select group of customers-usually royal and aristocratic individuals whom they wished to cultivate-a range of "personal banking services" ranging from large personal loans (as in the case of the Austrian Chancellor Prince Metternich) to a first cla.s.s private postal service (as in the case of Queen Victoria). Contrary to Bagehot's impression, they sometimes took deposits from this exclusive clientele. And the Rothschilds were also major industrial investors-an aspect of their business which has often been underestimated. When the development of railways raised the possibility of transforming Europe's transport system in the 1830s and 1840s, the Rothschilds were among the leading financial backers of lines, beginning in France, Austria and Germany. Indeed, by the 1860s James de Rothschild had built up something like a pan-European railway network extending northwards from France to Belgium, southwards to Spain and eastwards to Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Italy. From an early stage, the Rothschilds also had major mining interests, beginning in the 1830s with their acquisition of the Spanish mercury mines of Almaden and expanding dramatically in the 1880s and 1890s when they invested in mines producing gold, copper, diamonds, rubies and oil. Like their original financial business, this was an authentically global operation extending from South Africa to Burma, from Montana to Baku.

The primary concern of this book is therefore to explain the origins and development of one of the biggest and most unusual businesses in the history of modern capitalism. Nevertheless, it is not intended as a narrowly economic history. For one thing, the history of the firm is inseparable from the history of the family: the phrase "the House of Rothschild," which has often been used by previous historians (and film-makers) was used by contemporaries, including the Rothschilds themselves, to convey this unity. While the regularly revised and renewed partnership agreements regulated the management of the Rothschilds' collective business activities and the distribution of the profits which accrued, of equal importance were the nuptial agreements which, at the height of the family's success, systematically married Rothschild to Rothschild, thus keeping the family's capital united-and safe from the claims of "outsiders." When Rothschild women did marry outside the family, their husbands were prohibited from having a direct involvement in the business, as were the female Rothschilds themselves. The partners' wills were also designed to ensure the perpetuation and growth of the business by imposing the wishes of one generation on the next. Inevitably, there were conflicts between the collective ambitions of the family, so compellingly spelt out by Mayer Amschel before he died, and the wishes of the individuals who happened to be born Rothschilds, few of whom shared the founder's relentless appet.i.te for work and profits. Fathers were disappointed by sons. Brothers resented brothers. Love was unrequited or prohibited. Marriage was imposed on unwilling cousins, and husbands and wives quarrelled. In all this, the Rothschilds had much in common with the large families which populate so much nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century fiction: Thackeray's New-comes, Trollope's Pallisers, Galsworthy's Forsytes, Tolstoy's Rostovs and Mann's Buddenbrooks (though not, happily, Dostoevsky's Karamazovs). The nineteenth century, of course, was an era of large families-the birth rate was high and, for the rich, the death rate fell-and perhaps in this sense alone the Rothschilds were not (as Heine once called them) "the exceptional family."

Because they were so rich, the Rothschilds could plainly claim a material equivalence with the European aristocracy; their success in overcoming the various legal and cultural obstacles to full equivalence of status status is one of the most remarkable case studies in nineteenth century social history. As men whose father had been prohibited from owning property outside the cramped and squalid Frankfurt Judenga.s.se, the five brothers had an understandable interest in the acquisition of land and s.p.a.cious residences; though it was the third generation is one of the most remarkable case studies in nineteenth century social history. As men whose father had been prohibited from owning property outside the cramped and squalid Frankfurt Judenga.s.se, the five brothers had an understandable interest in the acquisition of land and s.p.a.cious residences; though it was the third generation3 who were responsible for building most of the spectacular palaces and town houses which are the family's most impressive monuments. At the same time, the Rothschilds energetically pursued and acquired decorations, t.i.tles and other honours, securing the ultimate prize-an English peerage-in 1885. The third generation also threw themselves into hunting and horse-racing, those quintessentially aristocratic pastimes. A similar process of social a.s.similation is detectable in their cultural engagement. James and his nephews had a pa.s.sion for collecting art, ornaments and furniture which they pa.s.sed on to many of their descendants. They also extended their patronage to include writers (Benjamin Disraeli, Honore de Balzac and Heinrich Heine), musicians (notably Fryderyk Chopin and Gioachino Rossini) as well as architects and artists. In more ways than one, they were the nineteenth century's Medicis. who were responsible for building most of the spectacular palaces and town houses which are the family's most impressive monuments. At the same time, the Rothschilds energetically pursued and acquired decorations, t.i.tles and other honours, securing the ultimate prize-an English peerage-in 1885. The third generation also threw themselves into hunting and horse-racing, those quintessentially aristocratic pastimes. A similar process of social a.s.similation is detectable in their cultural engagement. James and his nephews had a pa.s.sion for collecting art, ornaments and furniture which they pa.s.sed on to many of their descendants. They also extended their patronage to include writers (Benjamin Disraeli, Honore de Balzac and Heinrich Heine), musicians (notably Fryderyk Chopin and Gioachino Rossini) as well as architects and artists. In more ways than one, they were the nineteenth century's Medicis.

Yet it would be wrong to see them as the archetype of the "feudalised" bourgeois family, "aping" the manners of the landed elite. For the Rothschilds brought to the aristocratic milieu patterns of behaviour which were distinctively commercial in origin. Initially, they bought land as an investment which they expected to pay an economic return. They regarded the large houses they built at least partly in functional terms, as private hotels for dispensing corporate hospitality. Nathan's sons and grandsons even saw the purchase of horses as a form of enjoyably speculative investment and placed bets on horse-races in much the same way that they engaged in stock market "specs." To put it cynically, mixing with members of the aristocracy was essential if it was they who governed, and almost as much political information came from informal socialising as from formal meetings with ministers.

At the same time, there is a sense in which the Rothschilds more closely resembled royalty than either the aristocracy or the middle cla.s.ses. This was not just because they consciously imitated the many crowned heads they came to know. Like the extended family which provided so many of Europe's monarchs, the Rothschilds were extreme in their preference for endogamy. They relished the sense that they were sans pareil sans pareil-at least within the European Jewish elite. In this sense, phrases like "Kings of the Jews" which contemporaries applied to them contained an important element of truth. That was exactly the way the Rothschilds saw and conducted themselves-as phrases like "our royal family" in their letters show-and the way they were treated by many other less wealthy Jews.

This relationship to Judaism and the Jewish communities of Europe and the Middle East is unquestionably one of the most fascinating themes of the family's history. For the Rothschilds, as for so many Jewish families who migrated westwards in the nineteenth century, social a.s.similation or integration in the countries where they settled posed a challenge to their faith, although the relaxation of discriminatory legislation allowed them to acquire not only money but many of the desirable things it could buy. Yet no matter how sumptuous their houses and how well educated their children, they constantly encountered anti-Jewish sentiment, ranging from the aggression of the Frankfurt mob to the subtle disdain of aristocrats and Gentile bankers for "the Jew." Many other wealthy Jewish families opted to convert to Christianity partly in response to such pressures. But the Rothschilds did not. They remained firmly committed to Judaism, playing an important role in the affairs of the various Jewish communities of which they were members. Moreover, they sought, from their earliest days, to use their financial leverage over individual states to improve the legal and political position of the Jews living there. They did this not only in their home town of Frankfurt, but consistently in almost every state where they did business thereafter as well as in some countries (for example, Rumania and Syria) where they had no economic interests. At least some members of the family saw such altruistic activities as in some sense linked to their own material success: by remaining true to the faith of their ancestors and remembering their "poorer co-religionists" the Rothschilds not only demonstrated their grat.i.tude for their good fortune but ensured that it continued.

Finally, and perhaps most important, this is a political as much as it is a financial history: there are few major political figures in nineteenth-century history who do not feature in the index of this book. From the very earliest days, the Rothschilds appreciated the importance of proximity to politicians, the men who determined not only the extent of budget deficits but also the domestic and foreign policies which so influenced the financial markets; and politicians soon came to realise the importance of proximity to the Rothschilds, who at times seemed indispensable to the solvency of the states the politicians governed and who could always be relied upon to provide up-to-the-minute political news. Mayer Amschel's cultivation of the Elector of Hesse-Ka.s.sel's chief financial adviser Karl Buderus and later of Karl Theodor Anton von Dalberg, Prince-Primate of Napoleon's Rhenish Confederation, were the prototypes of countless relationships his sons cultivated with politicians throughout Europe. Beginning in 1813, Nathan became intimate with the British Commissary-General, John Charles Herries, the man responsible for financing Wellington's invasion of France. Another early Rothschild "friend" in England was Charles Stewart, brother of the Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh and the British delegate at the Congresses of Vienna, Troppau, Laibach and Verona. Nathan was also in direct contact with the Prime Minister Lord Liverpool and his Chancellor of the Exchequer Nicholas Vansittart in the early 1820s, and gave the Duke of Wellington important financial advice during the Reform crisis of 1830-32.

Rothschild influence extended to royalty as well. Nathan first came into contact with British royalty thanks to his father's purchase of outstanding debts owed by George, Prince Regent (later King George IV) and his brothers. These tenuous links were enhanced by careful cultivation of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who married George IV's daughter Charlotte and later became King Leopold I of the Belgians. Nor was his nephew Albert above turning to the Rothschilds for financial a.s.sistance after he became Queen Victoria's Prince Consort. In turn, Victoria and Albert's eldest son was on friendly terms with many members of the family before and after he succeeded his mother as Edward VII. The list of Victorian politicians who were close to the Rothschilds is a long one: Lionel's campaign for admission to the House of Commons in the 1840s and 1850s enjoyed support from Whigs like Lord John Russell and Peelites like Gladstone, but also Protectionist Tories like Disraeli and Lord George Bentinck. Later, as his sons grew disillusioned with Gladstone, they were attracted not only to Disraeli but also to Lord Randolph Churchill, Joseph Chamberlain and Arthur Balfour. In the 1880s and 1890s their advice on imperial matters was sought by both the Marquess of Salisbury and the Earl of Rosebery, Gladstone's successor as Liberal Prime Minister. Indeed, Rosebery was married to a Rothschild: Mayer's daughter Hannah.

The French Rothschilds also took a direct role in politics. They were close to the comte de Villele in the early 1820s, shifted their allegiance skilfully to Louis Philippe in 1830, managed to survive the 1848 revolution by cultivating leading republicans, and subtly undermined the rule of Napoleon III, whose foreign adven turism they disliked. They also had a firm friend in the Third Republic in the person of Leon Say, four times French Finance Minister. In Germany and Austria, the close relationship between Salomon and Metternich was of immense importance in the years 1818-48, but it was far from unique. Other "friends" of the Restoration era included Count Apponyi, the Austrian amba.s.sador in Paris, and members of the Esterhazy family; as well as (in Prussia) Prince Hardenberg, the State Chancellor, Wilhelm von Humboldt, the educational reformer and diplomat, and Christian Rother, the finance official who rose to become president of the Prussian royal bank. Links with Bismarck proved harder to forge, though by the 1870s Mayer Carl was able to act as a channel of diplomatic communication between "old B." and the governments in London and Paris. The Emperor William II awarded Alfred de Rothschild a medal for his diplomatic services and regarded his brother Natty as "an old and much respected acquaintance."

A central aim of this book is to illuminate these relationships. As Fritz Stern said in his pioneering study of the relationship between Bismarck and Gerson Bleichroder, historians used to be shy of acknowledging the role of financial factors in the policies of the great statesmen of the nineteenth century. Strangely, the many historians of a Marxist persuasion who were once so influential did hardly anything to rectify this, preferring to a.s.sert rather than to demonstrate that the interests of the ruling cla.s.s were essentially the same as (or subordinate to) those of "finance capital." In recent years, historians of British imperialism have done much to refine our understanding of the relationship between the City and the Empire. But the model of "gentlemanly capitalism" advanced by Cain and Hopkins does not quite fit the Rothschild case; and, given the sheer scale of the Rothschilds' role in nineteenth-century finance, this is an exception which may do more than prove the rule. The Rothschilds after the second generation may have acted like gentlemen when they were in the West End or the country. But in the "counting house" they were unalloyed capitalists, applying rules and precepts of business which had their origins in the Frankfurt Judenga.s.se.

III.

The above is a sketch of what might be called the reality of Rothschild history which this book describes in detail. In itself, it is an absorbing story. Yet it becomes doubly so when juxtaposed with the extraordinary mythology which has grown up around the family since they first began to be noticed by contemporaries as "exceptional."

The origins of the Rothschild myth-as far as surviving published records go-can be traced back to 1813, the year after the death of the founder of the firm. Despite its eulogistic t.i.tle and tone, it would be wrong to describe S. J. Cohen's memoir, The Exemplary Life of the Immortal Banker Mr Meyer Amschel Rothschild The Exemplary Life of the Immortal Banker Mr Meyer Amschel Rothschild, as an authorised biography. Nevertheless, it set the tone for what might broadly be described as the sympathetic (if not the official) explanation for the Rothschilds' financial success, essentially portraying it as a morality tale of virtue rewarded. Not only was Mayer Amschel a pious and observant Jew, Cohen argued, but his life "proved beyond doubt that a Jew, as a Jew, can be religious and at the same time an excellent man and a good citizen." Like the authors of so many later works of homage, Cohen said very little about Mayer Amschel's business career. But the strong implication was that his success as a banker was a sign of divine approbation.

Some thirteen years later a more precise but comparably moralistic explanation was published. The General German Encyclopaedia for the Educated Cla.s.ses General German Encyclopaedia for the Educated Cla.s.ses produced by the Leipzig publisher F. A. Brockhaus was a typical example of the secular reference work of the Biedermeier era. It was popular, selling around 80,000 copies; but, though similar in form to the French encyclopaedias which had been a.s.sociated with the pre-Revolutionary Enlightenment, its content was monitored by the conservative authorities. Indeed, the man who wrote the entry for "Rothschild" first published in the 1827 edition of the encyclopaedia was Friedrich von Gentz, secretary to Metternich; and the positive tone of the piece reflected the Rothschilds' growing influence over both Austrian public finance and Gentz's private affairs. This was an article which the family not only approved of but paid for: prior to publication Gentz read it aloud to Leopold von Wertheimstein, one of the Vienna house's senior clerks, and ten days later received his "actual reward" from Salomon von Rothschild himself. produced by the Leipzig publisher F. A. Brockhaus was a typical example of the secular reference work of the Biedermeier era. It was popular, selling around 80,000 copies; but, though similar in form to the French encyclopaedias which had been a.s.sociated with the pre-Revolutionary Enlightenment, its content was monitored by the conservative authorities. Indeed, the man who wrote the entry for "Rothschild" first published in the 1827 edition of the encyclopaedia was Friedrich von Gentz, secretary to Metternich; and the positive tone of the piece reflected the Rothschilds' growing influence over both Austrian public finance and Gentz's private affairs. This was an article which the family not only approved of but paid for: prior to publication Gentz read it aloud to Leopold von Wertheimstein, one of the Vienna house's senior clerks, and ten days later received his "actual reward" from Salomon von Rothschild himself.

Though he said little about their origins in the Frankfurt ghetto in the four columns which Brockhaus published-indeed, he did not mention their religion at all-Gentz implied that they had only recently become "the greatest of all business firms." This success had its roots, he suggested, in Mayer Amschel's "hard work and parsimony . . . knowledge and proven integrity." Likewise his five sons were celebrated for "the reasonableness of their demands . . . the punctiliousness with which they carry out their duties . . . the simplicity and clarity of their schemes, and the intelligent way in which they are put into operation." Apart from their skill as businessmen, Gentz also laid considerable emphasis on "the personal moral character of each of the five brothers" as "a determining factor in the success of their undertakings": It is not difficult to create a party for oneself when one is powerful enough to draw many people into one's interest. But to unite the support of all parties and . . . to win the esteem of great and small, requires the possession not merely of material resources, but also of spiritual qualities which are not always found in a.s.sociation with wealth and power. Doing good works on all sides, never refusing help to one in need, always willing to fulfil the requests of anyone who asks for help, without regard to his cla.s.s, and performing the most important services in the most gracious manner: by these means each of the five branches of the family has achieved a real popularity, and not in a calculated way but out of a natural philanthropy and kindness.

Such reflections had a faintly standardised quality to them, of course: paid hacks had been writing in such glowing terms about their wealthy patrons since ancient times. Privately, Gentz was more ambivalent. His first comment on the family (in response to a suggestion by his friend Adam Muller in 1818 that he write just such an essay) had been decidedly backhanded. They were, he agreed, "a distinct species plantarum species plantarum with its own characteristic features:" to be precise, they were "common, ignorant Jews, who exercise their craft quite naturalistically [that is, instinctively], with no idea of the more elevated relationships between things." On the other hand, they were also "gifted with a remarkable instinct which causes them always to choose the right and of two rights the better." Their enormous wealth was "entirely the result of this instinct, which the public are wont to call luck." In a section of his "Biographical Notes on the House of Rothschild" which was only published posthumously, Gentz elaborated on this last point-the relationship between ability ("virtue") and circ.u.mstances ("luck")-in a Machiavellian vein: with its own characteristic features:" to be precise, they were "common, ignorant Jews, who exercise their craft quite naturalistically [that is, instinctively], with no idea of the more elevated relationships between things." On the other hand, they were also "gifted with a remarkable instinct which causes them always to choose the right and of two rights the better." Their enormous wealth was "entirely the result of this instinct, which the public are wont to call luck." In a section of his "Biographical Notes on the House of Rothschild" which was only published posthumously, Gentz elaborated on this last point-the relationship between ability ("virtue") and circ.u.mstances ("luck")-in a Machiavellian vein: There is a truth, which, although not quite new, is generally not properly understood. The word luck luck as commonly used in the history of famous individuals or eminent families, becomes bereft of all meaning when we endeavour to dissociate it entirely from the personal or eminent factors in each case. There are circ.u.mstances and events in life in which good or ill luck may be a determining although not an exclusive factor in human destiny. Lasting success, however, and constant failure are always . . . attributable to the personal virtue or the personal failings and shortcomings of those who are blessed by the one or d.a.m.ned by the other. Nevertheless, the most outstanding personal qualities may sometimes require exceptional circ.u.mstances and world-shattering events to come to fruition. Thus have the founders of dynasties established their thrones, and thus has the House of Rothschild become great. as commonly used in the history of famous individuals or eminent families, becomes bereft of all meaning when we endeavour to dissociate it entirely from the personal or eminent factors in each case. There are circ.u.mstances and events in life in which good or ill luck may be a determining although not an exclusive factor in human destiny. Lasting success, however, and constant failure are always . . . attributable to the personal virtue or the personal failings and shortcomings of those who are blessed by the one or d.a.m.ned by the other. Nevertheless, the most outstanding personal qualities may sometimes require exceptional circ.u.mstances and world-shattering events to come to fruition. Thus have the founders of dynasties established their thrones, and thus has the House of Rothschild become great.

The readers of Brockhaus's Encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia were spared these somewhat hackneyed philosophical reflections. Instead-in the form of a footnote inserted by Gentz's editor-they were given a specific and hitherto unpublicised episode which was intended to ill.u.s.trate precisely the relationship between virtue and luck which Gentz was driving at: were spared these somewhat hackneyed philosophical reflections. Instead-in the form of a footnote inserted by Gentz's editor-they were given a specific and hitherto unpublicised episode which was intended to ill.u.s.trate precisely the relationship between virtue and luck which Gentz was driving at: When the late Elector of Hesse had to flee in 1806 as the French approached, his large private fortune very nearly became Napoleon's booty. R. rescued a substantial part of it by his courage and cleverness, although not without risk to himself, and conscientiously took care of it.

In the 1836 version, the story was elaborated on. Now, it was said, the Elector had: left the recovery of his private possessions to Rothschild, their value amounting to many million gulden. It was only by sacrificing the whole of his own property and at considerable personal risk that Rothschild contrived to save the property that had been entrusted to him. The well-known fact that all Rothschild's possessions had been confiscated by the French led the exiled Elector to believe that his own property had been lost too. Indeed he does not even appear to have thought it worth while to make enquiries about it.

But he underestimated the virtuous Mayer Amschel: When matters had settled down again, Rothschild immediately proceeded to resume business with the property he had saved . . . When the Elector returned to his states in 1813, the House of Rothschild not merely offered immediately to return to him the capital sums with which they had been entrusted; they also undertook to pay the customary rate of interest from the day when they had received them. The Elector, positively astonished by such an example of honesty and fair dealing, left the whole of his capital for several more years with the firm, and refused any interest payments in respect of the earlier period, accepting a low rate of interest only as from the time of his return. By recommending the House of Rothschild [to others], especially at the Congress of Vienna, the Elector certainly a.s.sisted greatly in extending their connections.

This, then, was "the decisive factor in the enormous . . . development of [Mayer Amschel's] business." Few stories in financial history have been more frequently repeated, and the Rothschilds themselves did their share of the propagation. Nathan gave a potted version to the Liberal MP Thomas Fowell Buxton over dinner in 1834, while the version in the 1836 edition of Brockhaus was read by Carl von Rothschild and probably expanded by his sons' tutor Dr Schlemmer. The story was even the subject of two small paintings by Moritz Daniel Oppenheim which the family commissioned in 1861.

Yet Gentz did not portray the morality tale of the Elector's treasure as the sole explanation for the Rothschilds' subsequent success: he also had some illuminating points to make about the Rothschilds' business methods. "Success in all great transactions," he argued, "does not depend purely on the choice and exploitation of the favourable moment, but much more on the application of consciously adopted and fundamental maxims." Besides their "shrewd management and the advantageous circ.u.mstances," it was these "principles" which the Rothschilds had to thank for the greatest part of their success. One of these principles obliged: the five brothers to conduct their combined businesses in an uninterrupted community [of interest] . . . any proposal, no matter where it comes from, is the object of collective discussion; each operation, even if it is of minor importance, is carried out according to an agreed plan and with their combined efforts; and each of them has an equal share in its results.

As in the case of the Elector's treasure, the notion of perfect fraternal harmony was very probably inspired by the brothers themselves. When they submitted a design for a coat of arms in 1817 (following their enn.o.blement by the Austrian Emperor), the fourth quarter depicted an arm bearing five arrows, the symbol of the unity of the five brothers which the firm of N. M. Rothschild & Sons Ltd continues to use on its notepaper to this day. The motto later adopted by the brothers-"Concordia, integritas, industria"-was intended to depict precisely the virtues listed in Brockhaus's Encyclopaedia Encyclopaedia.

Gentz was the first of many writers to write about the Rothschilds in essentially friendly (if not sycophantic) terms. Perhaps the best of the more affectionate representations of the Rothschilds can be found in the novels of Benjamin Disraeli, who came to know the family intimately (and was also, like Gentz, not uninterested in their wealth). In Disraeli's Coningsby Coningsby (1844), for example, the resemblance between Sidonia and Lionel de Rothschild is close (though not complete). Sidonia's father is described as having made money in the Peninsular War: he then "resolved to emigrate to England, with which he had, in the course of years, formed considerable commercial connections. He arrived here after the peace of Paris, with his large capital. He staked all on the Waterloo loan; and the event made him one of the greatest capitalists in Europe." After the war, he and his brothers lent their money to the European states and he "became lord and master of the money-market of the world." The younger Sidonia too has all the skills of a banker: he is an accomplished mathematician and "possessed a complete mastery over the princ.i.p.al European languages." In (1844), for example, the resemblance between Sidonia and Lionel de Rothschild is close (though not complete). Sidonia's father is described as having made money in the Peninsular War: he then "resolved to emigrate to England, with which he had, in the course of years, formed considerable commercial connections. He arrived here after the peace of Paris, with his large capital. He staked all on the Waterloo loan; and the event made him one of the greatest capitalists in Europe." After the war, he and his brothers lent their money to the European states and he "became lord and master of the money-market of the world." The younger Sidonia too has all the skills of a banker: he is an accomplished mathematician and "possessed a complete mastery over the princ.i.p.al European languages." In Tancred Tancred (1847), the Rothschild-inspired Jewess Eva asks: "[W]ho is the richest man in Paris?" to which Tancred replies: "The brother, I believe, of the richest man in London." They are, of course, of her "race and faith." Admittedly, Disraeli's Rothschild-based characters often act as mouthpieces for the author's own somewhat idiosyncratic reflections on the place of Jews in the modern world: in no sense can they be regarded as "realistic" portraits of individual Rothschilds. Nevertheless, there are enough traces of his original models to give the novels a genuine value to the historian. (1847), the Rothschild-inspired Jewess Eva asks: "[W]ho is the richest man in Paris?" to which Tancred replies: "The brother, I believe, of the richest man in London." They are, of course, of her "race and faith." Admittedly, Disraeli's Rothschild-based characters often act as mouthpieces for the author's own somewhat idiosyncratic reflections on the place of Jews in the modern world: in no sense can they be regarded as "realistic" portraits of individual Rothschilds. Nevertheless, there are enough traces of his original models to give the novels a genuine value to the historian.

Other "positive" fictional representations are less substantial. An Austrian novella of the 1850s, for example, portrayed Salomon von Rothschild as a kind of Viennese Santa Claus, benignly siding with a carpenter's daughter who wants to marry her rich father's gifted but poor apprentice. A later example of the same genre is Oscar Wilde's short story "The Model Millionaire, a note of admiration" (1887), which describes how an impoverished man-about-town is helped to marry the girl he loves by the generosity of "Baron Hausberg." Such fairy stories, in which Rothschild-inspired characters are cast as benign dispensers of largesse, have echoes in some of the twentieth-century popular works about the family, particularly the books by Balla, Roth, Morton, Cowles and Wilson. The consciously (and sometimes cloy ingly) positive tenor of such works can be inferred even from their t.i.tles: The Romance of the Rothschilds The Romance of the Rothschilds, The Magnificent Rothschilds The Magnificent Rothschilds, A Family Portrait A Family Portrait, A Family of Fortune A Family of Fortune, A Story of Wealth and Power A Story of Wealth and Power. The 1969 musical about Mayer Amschel and his sons represents the reductio ad absurdum reductio ad absurdum of this sycophantic tendency. Here the family's early history is transformed into a sentimental yarn of good Jewish boys overcoming the deprivation and degradation of a South