This agency will perhaps appear at first sight small and insignificant, and the reader will not be inclined to concede to the action of such relations the weight which it in reality possesses. I must therefore find s.p.a.ce in a subsequent chapter to put forward further examples of the immense and far-reaching power of transformation exhibited in natural selection. For the present I will confine myself to simply placing side by side the two processes of artificial and natural selection, and clearly explaining the agreement and the differences of the two.

Both natural and artificial selection are quite simple natural, mechanical relations of life, which depend upon the _interaction_ of two physiological functions, namely, on _Adaptation_ and _Inheritance_, functions which, as such, must again be traced to physical and chemical properties of organic matter. The difference between the two forms of selection consists in this: in artificial selection the will of man makes the selection according to a _plan_, whereas in natural selection, the struggle for life (that universal inter-relation of organisms) acts _without a plan_, but otherwise produces quite the same result, namely, a selection of a particular kind of individuals for propagation. The alterations produced by artificial selection are turned to the advantage of _those who make the selection_; in natural selection, on the other hand, to the advantage of the _selected organism_.

These are the most essential differences and agreements of the two modes of selection; it must, however, be further observed that there is another difference, viz., in the duration of time required for the two processes of selection. Man in his artificial selection can produce very important changes in a very short time, while in natural selection similar results are obtained only after a much longer time. This arises from the fact that man can make his selection with much greater care.

Man is able with the greatest nicety to pick out individuals from a large number, drop the others, and to employ only the privileged beings for propagation, which is not the case in natural selection. In natural conditions, besides the privileged individuals which first succeed in propagating themselves, some few or many of the less distinguished individuals will propagate themselves by the side of the former.

Moreover, man can prevent the crossing of the original and the new form, which in natural selection is often unavoidable. If such a crossing, that is, a s.e.xual connection, of the new variety with the original forms takes place, the offspring thereby produced generally returns to the original character. In natural selection, such a crossing can be avoided only when the new variety by migration separates from the original and isolates itself.

Natural selection therefore acts much more slowly; it requires much longer periods than the artificial process of selection. But it is an essential consequence of this difference, that the product of artificial selection disappears much more easily, and that the new form returns rapidly to the earlier one, which is not the case in natural selection.

The new species arising from natural selection maintain themselves much more permanently, and return much less easily to the original form, than is the case with products of artificial selection, and accordingly maintain themselves during a much longer time than the artificial races produced by man. But these are only subordinate differences, which are explained by the different conditions of natural and artificial selection, and in reality are connected only with differences in the duration of time. The nature of the transformation and the means by which it is produced are entirely the same in both artificial and natural selection. (Gen. Morph. ii. 248.)

The thoughtless and narrow-minded opponents of Darwin are never tired of a.s.serting that his theory of selection is a groundless conjecture, or at least an hypothesis which has yet to be proved. That this a.s.sertion is completely unfounded, may be perceived even from the outlines of the doctrine of selection which have just been discussed. Darwin a.s.sumes no kind of unknown forces of nature, nor hypothetical conditions, as the acting causes for the transformation of organic forms, but solely and simply the universally recognized vital activities of all organisms, which we term _Inheritance_ and _Adaptation_. Every naturalist acquainted with physiology knows that these two phenomena are directly connected with the functions of propagation and nutrition, and, like all other phenomena of life, are purely mechanical processes of nature, that is, they depend upon the molecular phenomena of motion in organic matter. That the interaction of these two functions effect a continual, slow trans.m.u.tation of organic forms, is a necessary result of the struggle for existence. But this, again, is no more a hypothetical relation, nor one requiring a proof, than is the interaction of Inheritance and Adaptation. The struggle for life is a mathematical necessity, arising from the disproportion between the limited number of places in nature's household, and the excessive number of organic germs.

The origin of new species is moreover greatly favoured by the active or pa.s.sive _migrations_ of animals and plants, which takes place everywhere and at all times, without being, however, ent.i.tled to rank as _necessary_ agents in the process of natural selection.

The origin of new species by natural selection, or, what is the same thing, by the interaction of Inheritance and Adaptation in the struggle for life, is therefore a _mathematical necessity_ of nature which needs no further proof. Whoever, in spite of the present state of our knowledge, still seeks for _proofs_ for the Theory of Selection, only shows that he either does not thoroughly understand the theory, or is not sufficiently acquainted with the biological facts-has not the requisite amount of experimental knowledge in Anthropology, Zoology, and Botany.

If, as we maintain, natural selection is the great active cause which has produced the whole wonderful variety of organic life on the earth, all the interesting phenomena of _human life_ must also be explicable from the same cause. For man is after all only a most highly-developed vertebrate animal, and all aspects of human life have their parallels, or, more correctly, their lower stages of development in the animal kingdom. The whole history of nations, or what is called "Universal History," must therefore be explicable by means of "natural selection,"-must be a physico-chemical process, depending upon the interaction of Adaptation and Inheritance in the struggle for life. And this is actually the case. We shall give further proofs of this later on.

It appears of interest here to remark that not only _natural_ selection, but also _artificial_ selection exercises its influence in many ways in universal history. A remarkable instance of _artificial selection in man_, on a great scale, is furnished by the ancient Spartans, among whom, in obedience to a special law, all newly-born children were subject to a careful examination and selection. All those that were weak, sickly, or affected with any bodily infirmity, were killed. Only the perfectly healthy and strong children were allowed to live, and they alone afterwards propagated the race. By this means, the Spartan race was not only continually preserved in excellent strength and vigour, but the perfection of their bodies increased with every generation. No doubt the Spartans owed their rare degree of masculine strength and rough heroic valour (for which they are eminent in ancient history) in a great measure to this artificial selection.

Many tribes also among the Red Indians of North America (who at present are succ.u.mbing in the struggle for life to the superior numbers of the white intruders, in spite of a most heroic and courageous resistance) owe their rare degree of bodily strength and warlike bravery to a similar careful selection of the newly-born children. Among them, also, all children that are weak or affected with any infirmity are immediately killed, and only the perfectly strong individuals remain in life, and propagate the race. That the race becomes greatly strengthened, in the course of very many generations, by this artificial selection cannot in itself be doubted, and is sufficiently proved by many well known facts.

The opposite of this artificial selection of the wild Redskins and the ancient Spartans is seen in the individual selection which is universally practised in our modern military states, for the purpose of maintaining standing armies, and which, under the name of _military selection_, we may conveniently consider as a special form of selection.

Unfortunately, in our day, militarism is more than ever prominent in our so-called "civilization"; all the strength and all the wealth of flourishing civilized states are squandered on its development; whereas the education of the young, and public instruction, which are the foundations of the true welfare of nations and the enn.o.bling of humanity, are neglected and mismanaged in a most pitiable manner. And this is done in states which believe themselves to be the privileged leaders of the highest human intelligence, and to stand at the head of civilization. As is well known, in order to increase the standing army as much as possible, all healthy and strong young men are annually selected by a strict system of recruiting. The stronger, healthier, and more spirited a youth is, the greater is his prospect of being killed by needle-guns, cannons, and other similar instruments of civilization. All youths that are unhealthy, weak, or affected with infirmities, on the other hand, are spared by the "military selection," and remain at home during the war, marry, and propagate themselves. The more useless, the weaker, or infirmer the youth is, the greater is his prospect of escaping the recruiting officer, and of founding a family. While the healthy flower of youth dies on the battle-field, the feeble remainder enjoy the satisfaction of reproduction and of transmitting all their weaknesses and infirmities to their descendants. According to the laws of transmission by inheritance, there must necessarily follow in each succeeding generation, not only a further extension, but also a more deeply-seated development of weakness of body, and what is inseparable from it, a condition of mental weakness also. This and other forms of artificial selection practised in our civilized states sufficiently explain the sad fact that, in reality, weakness of the body and weakness of character are on the perpetual increase among civilized nations, and that, together with strong, healthy bodies, free and independent spirits are becoming more and more scarce.

To the increasing enervation of modern civilized nations, which is the necessary consequence of military selection, there is further added another evil. The progress of modern medical science, although still little able really to cure diseases, yet possesses and practises more than it used to do the art of prolonging life during lingering, chronic diseases for many years. Such ravaging evils as consumption, scrofula, syphilis, and also many forms of mental disorders, are transmitted by inheritance to a great extent, and transferred by sickly parents to some of their children, or even to the whole of their descendants. Now, the longer the diseased parents, with medical a.s.sistance, can drag on their sickly existence, the more numerous are the descendants who will inherit incurable evils, and the greater will be the number of individuals, again, in the succeeding generation, thanks to that artificial "_medical selection_," who will be infected by their parents with lingering, hereditary disease.

If any one were to venture the proposal, after the examples of the Spartans and Redskins, to kill, immediately upon their birth, all miserable, crippled children to whom with certainty a sickly life could be prophesied, instead of keeping them in life injurious to them and to the race, our so-called "humane civilization" would utter a cry of indignation. But the same "humane civilization" thinks it quite as it should be, and accepts without a murmur, that at the outbreak of every war (and in the present state of civilized life, and in the continual development of standing armies, wars must naturally become more frequent) hundreds and thousands of the finest men, full of youthful vigour, are sacrificed in the hazardous game of battles. The same "humane civilization" at present praises the abolition of capital punishment as a "liberal measure!" And yet capital punishment for incorrigible and degraded criminals is not only just, but also a benefit to the better portion of mankind; the same benefit is done by destroying luxuriant weeds, for the prosperity of a well cultivated garden. As by a careful rooting out of weeds, light, air, and ground is gained for good and useful plants, in like manner, by the indiscriminate destruction of all incorrigible criminals, not only would the struggle for life among the better portion of mankind be made easier, but also an advantageous artificial process of selection would be set in practice, since the possibility of transmitting their injurious qualities by inheritance would be taken from those degenerate outcasts.

Against the injurious influence of artificial military and medical selection, we fortunately have a salutary counterpoise, in the invincible and much more powerful influence of _natural selection_, which prevails everywhere. For in the life of man, as well as in that of animals and plants, this influence is the most important transforming principle, and the strongest lever for progress and amelioration. The result of the struggle for life is that, in the long run, that which is better, because more perfect, conquers that which is weaker and imperfect. In human life, however, this struggle for life will ever become more and more of an intellectual struggle, not a struggle with weapons of murder. The organ which, above all others, in man becomes more perfect by the enn.o.bling influence of natural selection, is the _brain_. The man with the most perfect understanding, not the man with the best revolver, will in the long run be victorious; he will transmit to his descendants the qualities of the brain which a.s.sisted him in the victory. Thus then we may justly hope, in spite of all the efforts of retrograde forces, that the progress of mankind towards freedom, and thus to the utmost perfection, will, by the happy influence of natural selection, become more and more certain.

CHAPTER VIII.

TRANSMISSION BY INHERITANCE AND PROPAGATION.

Universality of Inheritance and Transmission by Inheritance.-Special Evidences of the same.-Human Beings with four, six, or seven Fingers and Toes.-Porcupine Men.-Transmission of Diseases, especially Diseases of the Mind.-Original Sin.-Hereditary Monarchies.-Hereditary Aristocracy.-Hereditary Talents and Mental Qualities.-Material Causes of Transmission by Inheritance.-Connection between Transmission by Inheritance and Propagation.-Spontaneous Generation and Propagation.-Non-s.e.xual or Monogonous Propagation.-Propagation by Self-Division.-Monera and Ambae.-Propagation by the formation of Buds, by the formation of Germ-Buds, by the formation of Germ-Cells.-s.e.xual or Amphigonous Propagation.-Formation of Hermaphrodites.-Distinction of s.e.xes, or Gonochorism.-Virginal Breeding, or Parthenogenesis.-Material Transmission of Peculiarities of both Parents to the Child by s.e.xual Propagation.-Difference between Transmission by Inheritance in s.e.xual and in As.e.xual Propagation.

The reader has, in the last chapter, become acquainted with natural selection according to Darwin's theory, as the constructive force of nature which produces the different forms of animal and vegetable species. By natural selection we understand the interaction which takes place in the struggle for life between the _transmission by inheritance_ and the _mutability_ of organisms, between two physiological functions which are innate in all animals and plants, and which may be traced to other processes of life-the functions of propagation and nutrition. All the different forms of organisms, which people are usually inclined to look upon as the products of a creative power, acting for a definite purpose, we, according to the Theory of Selection, can conceive as the necessary productions of natural selection, working without a purpose,-as the unconscious interaction between the two properties of Mutability and Hereditivity. Considering the importance which accordingly belongs to these vital properties of organisms, we must examine them a little more closely, and employ a chapter with the consideration of Transmission by Inheritance. (Gen. Morph. ii. 170-191.)

Strictly speaking, we must distinguish between Hereditivity (Transmissivity) and Inheritance (Transmission). Hereditivity is the power of transmission, the capability of organisms to transfer their peculiarities to their descendants by propagation. Transmission by Inheritance, or Inheritance simply, on the other hand, denotes the exercise of the capability, the actual transmission.

Hereditivity and Transmission by Inheritance are such universal, everyday phenomena, that most people do not heed them, and but few are inclined to reflect upon the operation and import of these phenomena of life. It is generally thought quite natural and self-evident that every organism should produce its like, and that children should more or less resemble their parents. Heredity is usually only taken notice of and discussed in cases relating to some special peculiarity, which appears for the first time in a human individual without having been inherited, and then is transmitted to his descendants. It shows itself in a specially striking manner in the case of certain diseases, and in unusual and irregular (monstrous) deviations from the usual formation of the body.

Among these cases of the inheritance of monstrous deviations, those are specially interesting which consist in an abnormal increase or decrease of the number five in the fingers or toes of man. It is not unfrequently observed in families through several generations, that individuals have six fingers on each hand, or six toes on each foot. Less frequent is the number of four or seven fingers or toes. The unusual formation arises at first from a single individual who, from unknown causes, is born with an excess of the usual number of fingers and toes, and transmits these, by inheritance, to a portion of his descendants. In one and the same family it has happened that, throughout three, four, or more generations, individuals have possessed six fingers and toes. In a Spanish family there were no less than forty individuals distinguished by this excess.

The transmission of the sixth finger or toe is not permanent or enduring in all cases, because six-fingered people always intermarry again with those possessing five fingers. If a six-fingered family were to propagate by pure in-breeding, if six-fingered men were always to marry six-fingered women, this characteristic would become permanent, and a special six-fingered human race would arise. But as six-fingered men usually marry five-fingered women, and _vice versa_, their descendants for the most part show a very mixed numerical relation, and finally, after the course of some generations, revert again to the normal number of five. Thus, for example, among eight children of a six-fingered father and a five-fingered mother, two children may have on both hands and feet six fingers and toes, four children may have a mixed number, and two children may have the usual number of five on both hands and feet. In a Spanish family, each child except the youngest had the number six on both hands and feet; the youngest, only, had the usual number on both hands and feet, and the six-fingered father of the child refused to recognize the last one as his own.

The power of inheritance, moreover, shows itself very strikingly in the formation and colour of the human skin and hair. It is well known how exactly the nature of the complexion in many families-for instance, a peculiar soft or rough skin, a peculiar luxuriance of the hair, a peculiar colour and largeness of the eyes-is transmitted through many generations. In like manner, peculiar local growths or spots on the skin, the so-called moles, freckles, and other acc.u.mulations of pigment which appear in certain places, are frequently transmitted through several generations so exactly, that in the descendants they appear on the same spots on which they existed in the parents. The porcupine men of the Lambert family, who lived in London last century, are especially celebrated. Edward Lambert, born in 1717, was remarkable for a most unusual and monstrous formation of the skin. His whole body was covered with a h.o.r.n.y substance, about an inch thick, which rose in the form of numerous thorn-shaped and scale-like processes, more than an inch long.

This monstrous formation of the outer skin, or epidermis, was transmitted by Lambert to his sons and grandsons, but not to his granddaughters. The transmission in this instance remained in the male line, as is often the case. In like manner, an excessive development of fat in certain parts of the body is often transmitted only in the female line. I scarcely need call to mind how exactly the characteristic formation of the face is transmitted by inheritance; sometimes it remains within the male, sometimes within the female line; sometimes it is blended in both.

The phenomena of transmission by inheritance of pathological conditions, especially of the different forms of human diseases, are very instructive and generally known. Diseases of the respiratory organs, the glands, and of the nervous system, are specially liable to be transmitted by inheritance. Very frequently there suddenly appears in an otherwise healthy family a disease until then unknown among them; it is produced by external causes, by conditions of life causing disease. This disease, brought about in an individual by external cause, is propagated and transmitted to his descendants, and some or all of them then suffer from the same disease. In case of diseases of the lungs, for instance in consumption, this sad transmission by inheritance is well known, and it is the same with diseases of the liver, with syphilis, and diseases of the mind. The latter are specially interesting. Just as peculiar characteristic features of man-pride, ambition, frivolity, etc.-are transmitted to the descendants strictly by inheritance, so too are the peculiar abnormal manifestations of mental activity, which are usually called fixed ideas, despondency, imbecility, and generally "diseases of the mind." This distinctly and irrefragably shows that the soul of man, just as the soul of animals, is a purely mechanical activity, the sum of the molecular phenomena of motion in the particles of the brain, and that it is transmitted by inheritance, together with its substratum, just as every other quality of the body is materially transmitted by propagation.

When this exceedingly important and undeniable fact is mentioned, it generally causes great offence, and yet in reality it is silently and universally acknowledged. For upon what else do the ideas of "hereditary sin," "hereditary wisdom," and "hereditary aristocracy," etc., rest than upon the conviction that the _quality of the human mind_ is transmitted by propagation-that is, by a purely _material_ process-through the body, from the parents to the descendants? The recognition of this great importance of transmission by inheritance is shown in a number of human inst.i.tutions, as for example, among many nations in the division into castes, such as the castes of warriors, castes of priests, and castes of labourers, etc. It is evident that the inst.i.tution of such castes originally arose from the notion of the great importance of hereditary distinctions possessed by certain families, which it was presumed would always be transmitted by the parents to the children. The inst.i.tution of an hereditary aristocracy and an hereditary monarchy is to be traced to the notion of such a transmission of special excellencies. However, it is unfortunately not only virtues, but also vices that are transmitted and acc.u.mulated by inheritance; and if, in the history of the world, we compare the different individuals of the different dynasties, we shall everywhere find a great number of proofs of the transmission of qualities by inheritance, but fewer of transmissions of virtues than of vices. Look only, for example, at the Roman emperors, at the Julii and the Claudii, or at the Bourbons in France, Spain, and Italy!

In fact, scarcely anywhere could we find such a number of striking examples of the remarkable transmission of bodily and mental features by inheritance, as in the history of the reigning houses in hereditary monarchies. This is specially true in regard to the diseases of the mind previously mentioned. It is in reigning families that mental disorders are hereditary in an unusual degree. Thus Esquirol, distinguished for his knowledge of mental diseases, proved that the number of insane individuals in the reigning houses was, in proportion to the number among the ordinary population, as 60 to 1; that is, that disorders of the brain occur 60 times more frequently in the privileged families of the ruling houses than among ordinary people. If equally accurate statistics were made of the hereditary n.o.bility, the result would probably be that here also we should find an incomparably larger contingent of mental diseases than among the common, ign.o.ble portion of mankind. This phenomenon can scarcely astonish us if we consider what injury these privileged castes inflict upon themselves by their unnatural, one-sided education, and by their artificial separation from the rest of mankind. By this means many dark sides of human nature are specially developed and, as it were, artificially bred, and, according to the laws of transmission by inheritance, are propagated through series of generations with ever-increasing force and dominance.

It is sufficiently obvious from the history of nations how in successive generations of many dynasties, for example, of the princes of Saxon Thuringia and of the Medici, the n.o.ble solicitude for the most perfect human accomplishments in science and art were retained and transmitted from father to son; and how, on the other hand, in many other dynasties, for centuries a special partiality for the profession of war, for the oppression of human freedom, and for other rude acts of violence, have been hereditary. In like manner talents for special mental activities are transmitted in many families for generations, as, for instance, talent for mathematics, poetry, music, sculpture, the investigation of nature, philosophy, etc. In the family of Bach there have been no less than twenty-two eminent musicians. Of course the transmission of such peculiarities of mind depends upon the material process of reproduction, as does the transmission of mental qualities in general. In this case again, the vital phenomenon, the manifestation of force (as everywhere in nature), is directly connected with definite relations in the admixture of the material components of the organism. It is this definite proportion and molecular motion of matter which is transmitted by generation.

Now, before we examine the numerous, and in some cases most interesting and important, laws of transmission by inheritance, let us make ourselves acquainted with the actual nature of the process. The phenomena of transmission by inheritance are generally looked upon as something quite mysterious, as peculiar processes which cannot be fathomed by natural science, and the causes and actual nature of which cannot be understood. It is precisely in such a case that people very generally a.s.sume supernatural influences. But even in the present state of our physiology it can be proved with complete certainty that all the phenomena of inheritance are entirely natural processes, that they are produced by mechanical causes, and that they depend on the material phenomena of motion in the bodies of organisms, which we may consider as a part of the phenomena of propagation. All the phenomena of Heredity and the laws of Transmission by Inheritance can be traced to the material process of _Propagation_.

Every organism, every living individual, owes its existence _either_ to an act of unparental or _Spontaneous Generation_ (Generatio Spontanea, Archigonia), or to an act of Parental Generation or _Propagation_ (Generatio Parentalis, Tocogonia). In a future chapter we shall have to consider Spontaneous Generation, or Archigony. At present we must occupy ourselves with Propagation, or Tocogony, a closer examination of which is of the utmost importance for understanding transmission by inheritance. Most of my readers probably only know those phenomena of Propagation which are seen universally in the higher plants and animals, the processes of s.e.xual Propagation, or Amphigony. The processes of Non-s.e.xual Propagation, or Monogony, are much less generally known. The latter, however, are far more suited to throw light upon the nature of transmission by inheritance in connection with propagation.

For this reason, we shall first consider only the phenomena of _non-s.e.xual_ or _monogonic propagation_ (Monogonia). This appears in a variety of different forms, as for example, self-division, formation of buds, the formation of germ-cells or spores (Gen. Morph. ii. 36-58). It will be most instructive, first, to examine the propagation of the simplest organisms known to us, which we shall have to return to later, when considering the question of spontaneous generation. These very simplest of all organisms yet known, and which, at the same time, are the simplest imaginable organisms, are the _Monera_ living in water; they are very small living corpuscles, which, strictly speaking, do not at all deserve the name of organism. For the designation "organism,"

applied to living creatures, rests upon the idea that every living natural body is composed of organs, of various parts, which fit into one another and work together (as do the different parts of an artificial machine), in order to produce the action of the whole. During late years we have become acquainted with _Monera_, organisms which are, in fact, not composed of any organs at all, but consist entirely of shapeless, simple, h.o.m.ogeneous matter. The entire body of one of these Monera, during life, is nothing more than a shapeless, mobile, little lump of mucus or slime, consisting of an alb.u.minous combination of carbon. Simpler or more imperfect organisms we cannot possibly conceive.

The first complete observations on the natural history of a Moneron (Protogenes primordialis) were made by me at Nice, in 1864. Other very remarkable Monera I examined later (1866) in Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands, and in 1867 in the Straits of Gibraltar. The complete history of one of these Monera, the orange-red _Protomyxa aurantiaca_, is represented in Plate I, and its explanation is given in the Appendix.

I have found some curious Monera also in the North Sea, off the Norwegian coast, near Bergen. Cienkowski has described (1865) an interesting Moneron from fresh waters, under the name of _Vampyrella_.

But perhaps the most remarkable of all Monera was discovered by Huxley, the celebrated English zoologist, and called _Bathybius Haeckelii_.

"Bathybius" means, living in the deep. This wonderful organism lives in immense depths of the ocean, which are over 12,000-indeed, in some parts 24,000 feet below the surface, and which have become known to us within the last ten years, through the laborious investigations made by the English. There, among the numerous Polythalamia and Radiolaria which inhabit the fine calcareous mud of these abysses, the Bathybius is found in great quant.i.ties, sometimes in the shape of roundish, formless lumps of mucus, sometimes in the form of a network of mucus, covering fragments of stone and other objects. Small particles of chalk are frequently embedded in these mucous gelatinous ma.s.ses, and are, perhaps, products of their secretion. The entire body of this remarkable Bathybius consists solely of shapeless plasma, or protoplasm, as in the case of the other Monera-that is, it consists of the same alb.u.minous combination of carbon, which in infinite modifications is found in all organisms, as the essential and never-failing seat of the phenomena of life. I have given a detailed description and drawing of the Bathybius and other Monera in my "Monographie der Moneren," 1870,(15) from which the drawing in Fig. 9 is taken.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Life history of a simplest organism. Pl. I.

E. Haeckel del. _Prototmyxa aurantiaca._ Lagesse sc.]

In a state of rest most Monera appear as small globules of mucus or slime, invisible, or nearly so, to the naked eye; they are at most as large as a pin's head. When the Moneron moves itself, there are formed on the upper surface of the little mucous globule, shapeless, fingerlike processes, or very fine radiated threads; these are the so-called false feet, or pseudopodia. The false feet are simple, direct continuations of the shapeless alb.u.minous ma.s.s, of which the whole body consists. We are unable to perceive different parts in it, and we can give a direct proof of the absolute simplicity of the semi-fluid ma.s.s of alb.u.men, for with the aid of the microscope we can follow the Moneron as it takes in nourishment. When small particles suited for its nourishment-for instance, small particles of decayed organic bodies or microscopic plants and infusoria-accidentally come into contact with the Moneron, they remain hanging to the sticky semi-fluid globule of mucus, and here create an irritation, which is followed by a strong afflux of the mucous substance, and, in consequence, they become finally completely inclosed by it, or are drawn into the body of the Moneron by displacement of the several alb.u.minous particles, and are there digested, being absorbed by simple diffusion (endosmosis).

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 1.-Propagation of the simplest organism, a Moneron, by self-division. _A._ The entire Moneron, a Protamba. _B._ It falls into two halves by a contraction in the middle. _C._ Each of the two halves has separated from the other, and now represents an independent individual.]

Just as simple as the process of nutrition is the _propagation_ of these primitive creatures, which in reality we can neither call animals nor plants. All Monera propagate themselves only in an as.e.xual manner by monogony; and in the simplest case, by that kind of monogony which we place at the head of the different forms of propagation, that is, by self-division. When such a little globule, for example a Protamba or a Protogenes, has attained a certain size by the a.s.similation of foreign alb.u.minous matter, it falls into two pieces; a pinching in takes place, contracting the middle of the globule on all sides, and finally leads to the separation of the two halves (compare Fig. 1). Each half then becomes rounded off, and now appears as an independent individual, which commences anew the simple course of the vital phenomena of nutrition and propagation. In other Monera (Vampyrella), the body in the process of propagation does not fall into two, but into four equal pieces, and in others, again (Protomonas, Protomyxa, Myxastrum), at once into a number of small globules of mucus, each of which again, by simple growth, becomes like the parent body. Here it is evident that the process of _propagation is nothing but a growth of the organism beyond its own individual limit of size_.

The simple method of propagation of the Moneron by self-division is, in reality, the most universal and most widely spread of all the different modes of propagation; for by the same simple process of division, _cells_ also propagate themselves. Cells are those simple organic individuals, a large number of which const.i.tute the bodies of most organisms, the human body not excepted. With the exception of the organisms of the lowest order, which have not even the perfect form of a cell (Monera), or during life only represent a single cell (many Protista and single-celled plants), the body of every organic individual is composed of a great number of cells. Every organic cell is to a certain degree an independent organism, a so-called "elementary organism," or an "individual of the first order." Every higher organism is, in a measure, a society or a state of such variously shaped elementary individuals, variously developed by division of labour.(39) Originally every organic cell is only a single globule of mucus, like a Moneron, but differing from it in the fact that the h.o.m.ogeneous alb.u.minous substance has separated itself into two different parts, a firmer alb.u.minous body, the _cell-kernel_ (nucleus), and an external, softer alb.u.minous body, the _cell-substance_ or _body_ (protoplasma).

Besides this, many cells later on form a third (frequently absent) distinct part, inasmuch as they cover themselves with a capsule, by exuding an outer pellicle or _cell-membrane_ (membrana). All other forms of cells, besides these, are of subordinate importance, and are of no further interest to us here.

Every organism composed of many cells was originally a single cell, and it becomes many-celled owing to the fact that the original cell propagates itself by self-division, and that the new individual cells originating in this manner remain together, and by division of labour form a community or a state. The forms and vital phenomena of all many-celled organisms are merely the effect or the expression of all the forms and vital phenomena of all the individual cells of which they are composed. The egg, from which most animals and plants are developed, is a simple cell.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 2.-Propagation of a single-celled organism, Amba sphaerococcus, by self-division. _A._ The enclosed Amba, a simple globular cell consisting of a lump of protoplasm (_c_), which contains a kernel (_b_) and a kernel speck (_a_), and is surrounded by a cell-membrane or capsule. _B._ The free Amba, which has burst and left the cyst or cell-membrane. _C._ It begins to divide by its kernel forming two kernels, and by the cell-substance between the two becoming contracted. _D._ The division is completed by the cell-substance likewise falling into two halves (_Da_ and _Db_).]

The single-celled organisms, that is, those which during life retain the form of a single cell, for example the Ambae, as a rule propagate themselves in the simplest way by self-division. This process differs from the previously described self-division of the Moneron only in the fact that at the commencement the firmer cell-kernel (nucleus) falls into two halves, by a pinching in at its middle. The two young kernels separate from each other and act now as two distinct centres of attraction upon the surrounding softer alb.u.minous matter, that is, the cell-substance (protoplasma). By this process finally the latter also divides into two halves, and there now exist two new cells, which are like the mother cell. If the cell was surrounded by a membrane, this either does not divide at all, as in the case of egg-cleavage (Fig. 3, 4), or it pa.s.sively follows the active pinching in of the protoplasm; or, lastly, every new cell exudes a new membrane for itself.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 3.-Egg of a mammal (a simple cell). _a._ The small kernel speck or nucleolus (the so-called germ-spot of the egg). _b._ Kernel or nucleus (the so-called germ-bladder of the egg). _c._ Cell-substance or protoplasm (the so-called yolk of the egg). _d._ Cell-capsule or membrane (membrane of the yolk) of the egg; called in mammals, on account of its transparency, Membrana pellucida.]

The non-independent cells which remain united in communities or states, and thus const.i.tute the body of higher organisms, are propagated in the same manner as are independent single-celled organisms, for example, Amba (Fig. 2). Just as in that case, the cell with which most animals and plants commence their individual existence, namely, the egg, multiplies itself by simple division. When an animal, for instance a mammal (Fig. 3, 4), develops out of an egg, this process of development always begins by the simple egg-cell (Fig. 3) forming an acc.u.mulation of cells (Fig. 4) by continued self-division. The outer covering, or cell membrane, of the globular egg remains undivided. First, the cell-kernel of the egg (the so-called germinal vesicle) divides itself into two kernels, then follows the cell-substance (the yolk of the egg) (Fig. 4 _A_). In like manner, the two cells, by continued self-division, separate into four (Fig. 4 _B_), these into eight (Fig. 4 _C_), into sixteen, thirty-two, etc., and finally there is produced a globular ma.s.s of very numerous little cells (Fig. 4 _D_). These now, by further increase and heterogeneous development (division of labour), gradually build up the compound many-celled organism. Every one of us, at the commencement of our individual development, has undergone the very same process as that represented in Fig. 4. The egg of a mammal-represented in Fig. 3, and its development in Fig. 4-might as well be that of a man, as of an ape, dog, horse, or any other placental mammal.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 4.-First commencement of the development of a mammal's egg, the so-called "cleavage of the egg" (propagation of the egg-cell by repeated self-division). _A._ The egg, by the formation of the first furrow, falls into two cells. _B._ These separate by division into four cells. _C._ The latter have divided into eight cells. _D._ By repeated division a globular acc.u.mulation of numerous cells has arisen.]