It grows in swamps and rivulets, and is an annual low plant from a perennial root, with large radical leaves and a leafless stalk, bearing the minute flowers on a bunchy raceme. The petioles, ribs of leaves, and stalks, are eaten fresh when stripped of the epidermis; and their taste is similar to that of the sorrel. The common stinging-nettle (_Sama_) is, by boiling, also prepared into an indifferent food during the quadragesimal low diet. The troublesome weed grows everywhere to a height of five feet.

Of the many _Polygoneae_, a few must be noticed on account of their frequent occurrence and of their use. Polygonum tomentosum (_Ba Waha lay_, i.e. "upon the water,") and Polygonum serratum, cover the margins of mora.s.ses and lakes. Polygonum frutescens (_Umboatoo_) is the most common hedge-shrub. Rumex arifolius (_Makmako_), frequent in swampy meadows, yields, in its fleshy root, a reddish dye for colouring b.u.t.ter.

The root of another species of Rumex, called _Tutt_, is believed to be a nostrum for barbarous and criminal purposes; but, happily, it is quite innocent. Instead of these species, which all belong to the Flora of Shoa, there appear in the Adel country several Boerhaaviae. Introduced into Shoa is a kind of willow (_Aheia_), much employed in the manufacture of saddles.

The _monopetalous Gymn.o.blasts_, being a cla.s.s next to the highest and most important, contain a large number of plants, of which the following are pointed out: Plantago Capensis (_Ya gura wosfi_), and Plantago Egyptiaca (_Burrh_), both common weeds in Shoa; Plumbago Capensis, with large white corolla, in Efat, and Scabiosa decurrens (_Adai_), with snowy heads, in Shoa, are highly ornamental; Echinops horridus, growing to the height of ten feet about Angollala; Carthamus tinctorius (_Suf_), extensively cultivated in Efat for the oil of the seeds and for the dye yielded by the flowers; Carduncellus spec. (_Dorakus_),--a decoction of the dried flower-heads is administered in ague. Several twining species of Mikania adorn the forests of Shoa; two fructiferous Cacaliae, full of a balsamic sap, and one Klenia, exhibit the brightest scarlet in the jungles of Efat. Pteronia spinosa, and Helichrysum vest.i.tum, are hardy shrubs found on the slopes. Species of Gnaphalium and Bidens are annoying weeds in the cotton-fields. The numerous kinds of Radiatae contain only one of importance, viz. the Polymnia Abyssinica (_Nug_), which is the chief oil plant. _Suf_ and _Nug_ oil mixed is called _Kabanug_, and only used for burning, since it possesses strong purging qualities. The family of the _Compositae_ furnishes altogether but a small number of useful plants in proportion to its extensiveness.

The _Campanulaceae_ are low annual insignificant weeds, one Lobelia excepted, viz. the Rhynchopetalum montanum, or _Jibera_. This strange perennial plant, with the aspect of a palm-tree, grows chiefly in moist ravines among the high mountains, and is especially frequent about Ankober. The stem attains upwards of fifteen feet in height, and five inches in diameter. The top carries a crown of large leaves; and the spike is one foot and a half long. When the seeds are ripe, the plant dies suddenly. One Erica (_Asta_), five feet in height, a.s.sists likewise to dispel the aspect of a European Flora, which is conveyed by the Veronica Beccabunga and Anagallis of the meadow rivulets.

Scrophularia frutescens (_Djodjo_), with a strong smell of camphor, is used as a febrifuge and charm; two kinds of Orobanche are also among the conjurer's infallible medicines. Acanthus carduifolius is the choicest camel-fodder in the desert. Rare specimens of Hyperanthera Moringa, the same as in Arabia, stand near the pools of the low country: a gum, becoming instantly red in the air, flows freely out of any bruise, but is applied to no use. Mint, thyme, and other plants of the family _l.a.b.i.atae_, so replete with aetheric oils, do not enjoy the reputation due to them. Of the many kinds only three have names and use, viz.

Origanum spec. (_Ka.s.si_), and Ziziphora spec. (_Lomi shett_, i.e.

"lime-smell"), which are used in the fomentation of boils; Leonotis spec. (_Ras Kimr_), as anthelminthic.u.m by a decoction of the dried leaves, mixed with a little oil. Several _Convolvulaceae_ and _Boragineae_ pa.s.s disregarded. Of the former. Convolvulus pes caprae binds the sand of the sea-beach; of the latter, a few specimens of Cordia Abyssinica (_Wanzey_) grow in Efat.

Capsic.u.m frutescens (_Geich Berberi_, i.e. "red pepper"), the most important of hot spices in warm climes, and Nicotiana Tabac.u.m (_Tombako_), also an indispensable commodity to many of the Moslem population, are objects of diligent cultivation in the lower country: yet the only tolerable tobacco must be imported from the Ittoo Galla.

Solanum marginatum (_Umboi_), a shrub, the seeds of which are strewed on the surface of ponds to stupify the fish, which are nevertheless still eatable, and Atropa arborea (_Amoraroo_), the red juice of whose berry is used by the Amhara women to stain their palms and nails, are common hedge-shrubs in Shoa. Of the narcotic qualities of the Datura Stramonium (_Atafaris_), the Abyssinian sorcerer is well aware. The thief-detector makes a youth smoke the dried leaves of it in order to cause stupefaction, and thus promote the semblance of powers of divination. Neither the potato nor any other edible kind of Solanum has yet been introduced into Shoa.

The families of _Contortae, Rubiaceae, Ligustrinae_, have many representatives in the low country. Stapelia pulvinata and Calotropis gigantea are the most prominent: the former has a fleshy, quadrangular, and four-winged stem of two feet height, and when in flower is scarcely approachable; the latter furnishes good charcoal for gunpowder.

Kannahia laniflora, with particularly sweet-smelling flowers, lines the borders of the rivulets in Efat; Carissa spec. (_Agame_) has edible berries, and flourishes both in Efat and Shoa. Melanea verticillata (_Adguar_), is a jungle-tree of ten feet height, with purging berries.

Psychotria spec. (_Doda Gula_), is a shrub found in Shoa; Coffea Arabica (_Boon_) grows wild in many of the warmer provinces, but is diligently plucked out by the Christian population, who consider the use of the berry to be as foreign to salvation as the doctrine of the false prophet. Where his followers abide in greater numbers, or uncontrolled, as in Giddem and in the countries of the Ittoo and Aroosi Galla, the coffee-tree grows unmolested, no care, however, being taken of it; but its proper home seems to lie far to the west and south, in the kingdoms of Caffa and Enarea, where a donkey's load is sold for the twentieth part of a dollar. Two kinds of jessamine grace with their fragrant flowers the hedges and groves. Olea spec. (_Woira_) is, with the juniper and yew, the princ.i.p.al forest-tree of Shoa; sixty to eighty feet in height, and four in diameter, are its common dimensions. The wood of the wild olive-tree affords excellent fuel and timber; but no use is made of the fruit, which attains the size of a large pea.

Among the _polypetalous Gymn.o.blasts_, in which vegetation has attained the highest degree of perfection with respect to variety of shape and colour, as well as medical and nutritious qualities, we find several important families altogether wanting in the Flora of Abyssinia. The Pomaceae and Amygdaleae are absent, and the existing scarcity of fruit-trees, whether wild or cultivated, is indeed most apparent.

Others of more limited utility are very numerous, as the Tricoccae, Rhocadeae, Amarantinae; but the Leguminosae form by far the largest family of polypetalous phanerogames.

Of _Umbelliferae_ there exists in the low country one Ferula, a small tree of unknown properties. In Shoa there are several Caucalis (_Karambashu_), growing on pasture grounds, and poisonous to cattle.

Coriandrum sativum (_Dumbelan_), and Anethum foeniculum, the well-known European spices, are cultivated. Berberis tinctoria of the forests yields a good yellow dye for mourning apparel. Clypea spec.

(_Engotshid_), is a creeper with pellate leaves, upon which small cakes are baked. Ranunculus trilobus (_Goodie_) is a troublesome weed on the meadows. Nigella sativa (_Asmud_) is occasionally cultivated as a spice. Several species of Polygala flourish unnoticed. Some _Balsamineae_ grow in shady places; one of them, Impatiens grandis (_Girshid_), has a tuberous root, with the juice of which the women paint their palms and faces red. Thlaspi bursa pastoris (_Ya bug elat_, i.e. "sheep's tail"), the cosmopolitan weed, follows agriculture also in Abyssinia. Sinapis Nigra (_Sanafitch_) grows wild, and is sometimes resorted to as an additional ingredient of the pepper sauce called _wotz_. Bra.s.sica spec. (_Goomun_), a cultivated coa.r.s.e kind of cow-cabbage, perennial, and five feet high, is eaten as a vegetable after much boiling; the seeds are also used for oil. Of the numerous _Capparideae_, Cadaba Indica is particularly important in the Adel desert, being for many scores of miles the only shrub which affords shelter from the noontide sun. Two species of Capparis make impenetrable hedges in Efat. Cuc.u.mis Africa.n.u.s (_Ya medur oomboi_) is an annual plant, of sandy and desert places; the seeds are a favourite medicine in Shoa, and also with the Galla. Cuc.u.mis colocynthis is frequent in the valleys adjoining the Bahr a.s.sal, but is not collected either for home use or for exportation. Cucurbita lagenaria (_Kel_) grows wild, and is cultivated in Efat for water-bottles. Cucurbita pepo, a common coa.r.s.e pumpkin in Shoa, serves as a vegetable. Bryonia scabrella (_Ya Amor a M'sa_) is a much dreaded poison. Two species of Flacourtia, _Koshim_ and _Menedem_, have edible berries.

Viola montana, a violet without smell, grows in the forests of Shoa.

_Tamaricinae_ occur in the desert, from the sea-sh.o.r.e as far as to the Hawash; the presence of the princ.i.p.al kind, called _Sagan_, is, to the Dankali herdsman, a sure indication of water near the surface. The genus Hyperic.u.m has only showy plants. The _Chenepodeae_,--chiefly weeds, contain one species (called _Amedmadoo_) which is used for polishing metal. Achyranthes spec. (_Talineh_) is a styptic medicine.

Phytolacca Abyssinica (_Endott_) is a common shrub in Shoa and Efat; a cold infusion of the dried and pounded berry possesses wonderful cleansing qualities, and is used instead of soap. Silene dianthoides (_Siakul_) is a pretty flower found on the high mountains. Calanchoe verea (_Endehahoola_) is a very common succulent plant, the leaves of which are dried and smoked like tobacco in phthisical affections, or the juice of them administered as refrigerants in inflammatory fevers.

Epilobium villosum (_Ya lahm tchau_, i.e. "cows' salt") is regarded as an excellent and wholesome fodder for homed cattle, if given occasionally Punica granatum (_Rooma_), sometimes cultivated in Efat, was introduced from Arabia. Several species of Grewia bear edible fruits in the desert, where their acidity is very grateful.

To the various kinds of _Byttneriaceae_ and _Malvaceae_, no particular interest is attached, except to the cotton (_Det_) Gossypium Nigrum, which is cultivated in two varieties, the finer and smaller species growing in the shade of the taller and more hardy. Both are regarded as indigenous to Abyssinia. Grain and cotton-cloth form the princ.i.p.al staple commodities of Shoa. Linum usitatissimum (_Tulbah_) is cultivated merely for the seeds, of which oil is made: flax-dressing not being understood. Vitis vinifera (_Woin Saf_), planted as a curiosity in the king's gardens, bears plentifully, and would doubtless answer well upon volcanic soil. Several species of Cissus interlace the jungles of Efat; one, especially, is a constant companion of the Camel-thorn Acacia in the desert.

Euphorbia Abyssinica (_Kolqual_), a singular sconce-like milk bush of the Abyssinian groves, gives charcoal for gunpowder; with the corrosive sap it is frequently attempted to stop ulcers of a phagedenic nature.

The insp.i.s.sated juice of two other species of Euphorbia, _Birgut_ and _Anderfa_, serves as a drastic purgative. The ostrich-hunting Somauli poisons his arrows with the milk of Euphorbia antiquorum, which does not make the meat injurious. Ricinus Africa.n.u.s (_Gulo_) affords in its seeds a famous medicine for cattle, and is frequent in Efat. Rhamnus spec. (_Gesho_) is a tonic, and a decoction of the leaves of this cultivated shrub is used in the manufacture of hydromel and beer instead of hops. Celastrus spec. (_Chaat_) is a species of the tea planted and used in Efat, but more extensively in Caffa and other countries of the interior. In Efat the fresh leaves are both chewed and used as an astringent medicine, or taken in order to dispel sleep: a decoction in water or milk being also drunk as a beverage, which tastes bitter enough. Hagenia Abyssinica (_Cosso_) affords, in a cold infusion of the dried flowers and capsules, the famous drastic.u.m purgans and anthelminthic.u.m of the Abyssinians. The tree is one of the most picturesque in appearance. Balsamodendron Myrrha (_Kurbeta_) grows on the borders of Efat, in the jungle of the Hawash, and in the Adel desert. The resinous gum called _Hofali_, is collected for exportation.

Balsamodendron Opobalsamum (_Besham_) is commonly found with the former, and grows even at Cape Aden. Citrus medica (_Lomi_) flourishes wild in the jungles of Giddem, and is cultivated in Efat: Citrus aurantium (_Bahr Lomi_), lately introduced from Arabia, and Citrus dec.u.mana var. (_Trunco_), with apple-like solid pulp, are both found in the royal orchards. Rubus pinnatus (_Injori_) yields the best of all wild-growing fruits in Abyssinia--a true blackberry of the forests.

Rosa Abyssinica (_Kaga_), a tree-like dog-rose, bears an edible hip.

The Brayera Abyssinica, which serves in Tigre instead of _Cosso_, is not known in the southern provinces.

Trifolium saxatile cespitosum (_Nagad_) is sown on the best meadows for green fodder. Vicia faba (_Bakkela_) is most extensively cultivated in Shoa and in the Galla countries to the west; the beans are eaten either fresh and green during the season, or, when dry, made up into soups.

Ervum lens (_Missur_), Cicer arietinum (_Shimbrah_), Pisum sativum (_Attur_), Phaseolus spec. (_Adunguari_), are produced in Efat and other warm provinces of the kingdom. Many species of Indigofera, wild and unheeded, grow in the desert and on the borders of cultivation.

Pterolobium lacerans (_Kantuffa_) is an impenetrable hedge-shrub abounding in Efat: the bark gives a red dye for leather. Tamarindus Indica attains a majestic size in the jungles of Efat, but is quite neglected; as are also various kinds of Senna (_Senamaki_).

Dichrostachys cinerea. Acacia eburnea. Acacia planifrons, and other Camel-thorn trees called _Gerar_, are of the utmost importance to the wilderness and desert; in the latter, the umbrella-like tops collect man and beast beneath their scanty shade during the hottest hours of the day. Some yield superior gum arabic; the twigs serve as food for the camel, and the pods for goats and sheep.

The foregoing list of Abyssinian plants comprehends nearly all those which are of importance to the cultivator, farmer, or physician; but no doubt double the number could be added by any people more enterprising and inquisitive than the inhabitants of Shoa. All kind of vegetation not directly useful and beneficial is regarded as a weed, and receives no special appellation; and few of the population know the names of any plant that is not a daily necessary of the kitchen. The physician's lore is kept a profound mystery; and there is not much lost by its limited diffusion, since the whole is a motley collection of very questionable experience and most degrading superst.i.tion.

Zoology.

Of the lowest order of animals, the _Radiates_, nearly the same may be said that was remarked above respecting the lowest order of plants; namely, that their species are in a less degree bound to certain limits of geographical distribution than those in which the respective types hasten in more marked characters to the highest possible perfection.

None of the numerous tribe of _Radiatae_ are, in their proper home, directly exposed to the external air and its changes. They live in a medium, which generally preserves a mean temperature, with extremes not prohibiting the possibility of animal existence, and their ephemeral life is little liable to be cut short by any sudden change. Thus we find that the waters and animal humours produce, in different climes, similar beings, in which either the deficiency in bulk is made up by countless mult.i.tudes of individuals, or the deficiency in number by high reproductive powers.

Intestinal worms (_Wosfat_) prove one of the chief plagues of the Abyssinians. Not only ascarides, but also tape and thread worms (Taenia and Filaria), are to be constantly contended with. The frequency of this disposition must have its source in the usual diet, consisting of unleavened dough-like bread and raw meat, which the accompanying pepper sauce is not sufficient to correct. Once in every month the _Cosso_ and other powerful purgatives are resorted to, and bring momentary relief; but the Guinea-worm, living in the fleshy parts of the limbs, must be endured until it shall have perforated the skin.

The influence exercised upon the nature of the _Articulated Animals_ or _Insects_ by the quality of the other visible organised beings, both plants and animals, is much more apparent than in the above-named order of the _Radiatae_. Being bound by the strongest ties to the limits of those beings which are a.s.signed to them as food and home, their species present distinctly marked characters of geographical distribution throughout the world.

In Shoa and Efat there appears with the increase of vegetation a larger number of insects, but the most noxious of them remain only during the height of the season. This is most perceptible in the migrations of locusts and caterpillars, which, by a few cold rains, are induced to descend into the open wildernesses and deserts. Such a sudden relief from countless hosts of the locusts, called _Anbasa_, is invariably ascribed, by the superst.i.tious farmer, to the special interposition and agency of his guardian saint, at whose shrine, in the hour of need, offerings and vows are liberally made. Various gra.s.shoppers (_Sada_), mantidae (_Feenta_), and c.o.c.kroaches, do considerable damage during the hot season. A large black ant (_Goonda_), which bites ferociously, constructs no water-tight habitation, but intrudes at the beginning of the rains into the huts, from which it is expelled with the utmost difficulty. The Egyptian honey-bee (_Neb_), either kept in the farm-yards within baskets, or existing wild in the woods, finds abundance of odoriferous flowers. Honey is an important article of consumption, both in its natural form and when converted into mead.

Although so cold, the country is not free from the annoyances of flies (_Sembi_), and musquitoes (_Tenang_). White ants (_Mest_) are not so numerous and destructive in the upper as in the lower country. Small colonies of them live and build their chambers beneath loose stones, but they never come into the houses, and, in fact, the juniper timber of the fragile edifices is seldom attacked by any wood vermin. Various most beautiful b.u.t.terflies, phalaenes, and moths, while in the caterpillar state (_Tel_), despoil trees and plants that are of no value to the Abyssinian; but his plantations of cotton and cabbage rarely suffer.

Neither the silkworm nor the mulberry-tree are found in the country.

Numerous varieties of beetles, of those families especially which remove animal matter and soil, with others of more cleanly habits, are comprised under the general appellation of _Densissa_. Among the former, the Coprophaga, many Egyptian species may be met with, as Copris Isidis, Ateuchus sacer, and others; among the latter, chiefly Cetoniae, are found species nearly allied to or identical with some of Senegambia.

One notable Inca, the male of which is armed with a powerful head excrescence, lives princ.i.p.ally on the sap of wounded trees; Lycus appendiculatus frequents chiefly the flowers of Umbelliferae; many Curculionides inhabit the plants of the family Compositae, but Coccinellae are the most numerous. Species of Lytta abound, but no use is made of them, the Shoans having no real medicine prepared from the animal kingdom. Spiders (_Sherarit_) and scorpions (_Kind_) are studiously avoided, or destroyed, as particularly impure and noxious, though the former never attack aught save their prey, and the sting of the latter is little dangerous. Total disregard of cleanliness is punished with a frightful increase of bodily vermin, as fleas (_Kunitsha_), lice (_Kemal_), bugs (_Tochan_), and acarus scabici (_Ekak_).

The large number of water-birds upon the lakes and mora.s.ses of Shoa effectually restrain an increase of _Snails_ and _Sh.e.l.ls_; some species of Bulimus (_Kendautchi_), minute Helices, Pupa, and Limax, are so few, that the damage done by them is not perceptible. Neither serve the larger kinds as food.

The known fresh-water _Fish_ are insignificant in quality and quant.i.ty, and only serve to feed the numerous crocodiles which infest the main stream of the Hawash. Its various tributaries, when they first escape from the mountains, carry small species of Salmo and Perca (_Asa_), which are in great request during Lent; but the manner of taking them is primitive and imperfect.

All the _Amphibia_ are objects of apprehension and superst.i.tion.

Serpents (_Ebab_) are not numerous, and are chiefly of small kinds, nor venomous, but the awe in which they are held is quite ridiculous.

Tribes in the far west, described as being the meanest of men, and scarcely above the beasts, are charged by the Abyssinians with the heinous custom of eating snakes, and ornamenting their persons with necklaces of the backbone of that accursed animal. Two kinds of tortoises (_Yeli_) are found in the low country, Testudo Graeca and Indica; the latter attains an enormous size in the deep impenetrable jungles of Mentshar. The dread entertained of the Saurii comprises all kinds, the harmless and the formidable. The Egyptian Gecko (_Enkakela_), the chameleon (_Eist_), the Seineus officinalis, and other numerous lizards, which make themselves most useful by the removal of so many annoying insects, are unrelentingly doomed to destruction, whilst the crocodiles (_Azo_) roam unmolested on the abandoned sh.o.r.es of the larger rivers and lakes.

The _Feathered Tribe_ exist in great variety of species, which may in some degree be due to the preponderance of migratory birds. The _Scansores_, however, are princ.i.p.ally stationary, their food seldom failing throughout the year. The n.o.blest of them is a parrot-like Coliphimus (_Sorit_) of the Shoan forests. Lovely shades of green, and many tints of the brightest red, a stately crest, and a long rounded tail, make it a favourite with the Abyssinians. A tail-feather fastened in the hair of a daring warrior, is a token of late achievements in the battle-field. Two other kinds, called _Wans Sorit_, i.e. Sorit of the river-side, and _Aheia_, i.e. donkey, from its asinine tunes, are much inferior in beauty, though not in size. One, Coliphimus concolor, is of a dull greyish green; the other, C. fasciatus, black and white, with white zones, across the tail; the beak of the female is green; both live in Efat upon different grains and wild figs. Two small kinds of parrot inhabit the fig and tamarind trees of the lower country: their name, _Donkoro_, is also used figuratively of persons talking nonsense. One corresponds almost with Psittacus Taranta. In the other, which is a little larger, the s.e.xes are distinguished by the gay plumage of the male, which is green above and red below, whilst the female is greyish brown and yellow. Centropus Jardini, a beautiful kind of cuckoo, lives solitary on the fig-trees in Efat: several species of woodp.e.c.k.e.rs, which do not seem to differ from the South African kinds, are found on acacias and tamarinds.

Among the _Ambulatores_ many migrate during winter-time from the mountains to the eastern plain; others arrive during summer from the North, most likely from Sennaar and Egypt. They rarely do any considerable damage on the plantations of Teff and Juwarree, whilst their services in destroying numberless vermin are most conspicuous.

Bird-catching for food or for amus.e.m.e.nt is not a sport with the Amhara, but, on the other hand, there is no privilege in favour of the songsters--a study and imitation of the tunes of which might greatly improve the execrable attempts of music, vocal and instrumental, vented by the unskilful Abyssinian performer.

Two gaudy kinds of Alcedo play on the rivulets--Merops Bulockii and Nubicus. These truly African species of the flycatcher are in the lower, Upupa epops, the common hoopoe, in the upper country. Certhia tacazze and chalybea, with two other equally beautiful kinds of the humming-bird, proceed with the seasons to their flower-gardens, when the return of rain here, and of warmth there, elicits the most fragrant blossoms, and covers the shrubs of the mountain-side, or the jungle-trees, with soft honey-insects. One of these humming-birds suspends its baglike nest, ingeniously woven of raw cotton, by a string of the same material, to reeds, or cotton-plants. Buphaga Africana picks the larvae of gad-flies out of the galled backs of camels, oxen, and mules, in spite of the struggles of the tortured animal. Jeterus larvatus, and other species of stares, weave their nests of gra.s.s, and line them inside with the woolly flowers of an Achyranthes. These nests are suspended in great numbers to the lower branches of solitary trees, and may have given origin to the story of the wonderful groves, where all the fruits are birds enclosed in a sh.e.l.l. Lamprotomis auratus, and some other kinds of thrushes, consume, during their short stay in Shoa of two months, immense numbers of insects. Among the Sylviadae are some eminent songsters, especially Sylvia Pammelaina, and also species of Motacilla, and Saxicola, whilst one Muscipeta, the male of which has two tail-feathers three times as long as the whole body, is quite silent.

The head and neck of this remarkable bird are steel-blue, the other parts of the plumage rusty-brown, except the two elongated middle feathers of the tail, which are snowy white, with black quills, and a brown plot at the extremity: they are used as an ornament for royalty.

Lanius humeralis (_Gurameile_) is one of those fatal birds, the sudden appearance of which before an army at its outset, forebodes ill-success, and all manner of misfortune to single persons, if the tail be directed towards them. To the other kinds of shrikes no such unhappy celebrity is attached, although they seem not less litigious, and anxious to draw off by their noise the attention of a wayfarer from the vicinity of their nests. Alauda alpestris comes from the West, and returns again after two months, April and May. The most numerous kinds of finches, Ploccus, Pyrgita, Linaria, etc., are all comprised under the appellation _Off_, i.e. small bird: they seem generally to have fixed quarters.

Colius Capensis (_Rasa_) is solely in Efat, in company with the Wans sorit.

Ravens and crows are of three kinds, but one of them (_Kura_) is particularly remarkable on account of its beak, which is much higher than the crown, carrying a considerable protuberance on the top, the nostrils being situated in an excavation, which runs forward in a broad furrow; the bill is very ma.s.sive, twice as high as it is broad, and terminating in a small hook; the colour of the plumage is deep brownish black, except a broad bar of white feathers across the sinciput, and sometimes a narrow white line down the back of the neck. Its voice and mode of living and walking is just like that of our crows, but it does not suffer the approach of other species.

Swallows are never failing, but the species vary in their visits.

Hirundo Capensis and rustica appear to avoid each other, not being seen together in the same localities. Cypselus apus and Caprimulgus species are rarely met with. Coracias afra and Abyssinica live only in the lower country, also the various kinds of Hornbill. _Erkoom_, Buceros Abyssinicus, by far the largest, is mischievous to the Juwarree fields; but the damage done is compensated by his great liking for field-mice also. The Erkoom runs swiftly, and rises seldom into the air: the white wing-feathers are much esteemed as an ornament of the hair by the triumphant warrior. Buceros nasutus, and another species, which differs slightly in colour and size, eat small lizards and chameleons. Buceros erythrorhynchus (_Sholak_), the most frequent of them, rids the plantations of many noxious insects.

The tribe of _Raptores_ (_Amora_) is uncommonly numerous, and on the whole very useful in Abyssinia. Those that feed on living animals seldom stoop even at a stray fowl, whilst all their other prey is quite indifferent to the farmer, and the carrion-birds remove quickly whatever the indolent grazier has dragged outside his door. Finding plenty of food, they have no need to wander widely or periodically; yet the large species have their nests at considerable distances from their hunting districts, and commonly on inaccessible precipices.

Strix bubo, the only but very common owl of the up-country, and one Otus of the low plain, are treated as birds of ill-omen. From the entrails of the former the necromancer prepares a potent charm. The eagle, Aquila naevia (Nas'r), comes seldom near the villages, nor is he forward in his depredations. Falco biarmicus fights his superiors in size, and deprives them forcibly of their prey; it has got hence the appellation, _Ya Amora Alaka_, i.e. chief of the birds of prey. Morphnus occipitalis (_Adagoota_), a beautiful crested falcon, lives in the lower country of Giddem, and is particularly inert. Several species of Astur and Accipiter (_Bazi_) feed on small songsters and mice. Ternis, spec.

(_Goodie_), removes innumerable quant.i.ties of locusts; and Milvus parasiticus (_Tshelvit_) cleans streets and premises in company with the crows. Gypaetos barbatus (_Cheffie_), extremely frequent in Shoa, draws near to butchers, and waits patiently for his share--the paunch and other rejected parts of the victim. Vultur arria.n.u.s and fulvus (_Vellos_) smell their food many miles off, and gather round it in great numbers. The periodically returning wars, and the extensive stock of cattle kept throughout the habitable parts, feed, with never-failing supplies of carrion, horrible gangs of hyenas, jackals, dogs, and vultures. Cathartes perenopterus and Neophron Niger are less frequent, and always solitary.

The tribe of _Rasores_ contains the few birds that are considered fit for Christian food; yet the common fowl (_Doroo_), the only domesticated kind, kept almost in every compound, is very much neglected, and not being of a superior breed, remains small and lean. All other meat is eaten raw by the Abyssinians, but fowls, either tame or wild, must be cooked. The wild ones, pintado, partridge, quail, and grouse, are not prohibited, but still suspected as unwholesome food; and if even long after an indulgence of such meat the gourmand falls sick, he invariably looks back upon that trespa.s.s as the cause of his indisposition. Numida cristata (_Chickra_), in bevies of many hundreds, range throughout the lower country. A very large kind of partridge (_Kok_) is found, not in coveys, but in pairs, running swiftly through furrows of the corn-fields. Dogs are taught to catch them without injury; and before being eaten, the bird is kept for some days, to obviate the bad effects of any unclean food which it may possibly have taken. This partridge attains the size of the pintado. Another kind, living on the high plateau, and also hunted down with dogs, resembles more that of middle Europe. Pterocles arenarius, and other species of grouse, occur in the deserts.

Pigeons are frequent both in Shoa and in the eastern provinces. _Wani, Ergeb_, and _k.u.mroo_, are appellations of different kinds, all too wild to tempt the Abyssinian to any exertion to catch or domesticate them.

_Wani_ is the largest, above brown, below slaty-grey; the head grey, with a black zone across the sinciput. Another is all grey, except a white zone on the upper neck, and a collar of darker arrow-headed feathers; a third also grey, but with a white head, and brown edges on the wing-feathers. _Ergeb_ has a peculiarly inflated beak; head and neck grey, shoulders and back olive-green, breast and belly citron-yellow, wing and tail-feathers whitish edged and tipped.

_k.u.mroo_ is the turtle-dove, one kind of which has elongated tail-feathers.

Otis Arabs, the largest bustard, which is as swift as the ostrich, destroys a great number of locusts and scorpions, and is therefore never eaten. Another smaller bustard (_Wato_) is variously coloured; it lives on the borders of the desert. Charadrius spinosus is a rare visitor of the lakes near the Hawash. Tachydromus isabellinus is an inhabitant of the plains of Efat; and Himantopus atropterus of the mora.s.ses near Angollala.

Abundance of water makes the provinces of Shoa a favourite place of resort to many species of _Grallatores_. Among the herons are remarkable Ardea ephippiorhyncha, and another called _Alaka fattah_, having particularly long wing-feathers of a darker colour than the remainder of the body, which is above grey, below white. The former lives in the valley of the Abai, the latter about Angollala, but migrates also to the West. Smaller kinds, as Garzetta, Nycticorax, arrive from the North in February, but commonly pa.s.s on still more southward, whence they return in May. Ibis religiosa stays for some months on the lakes of the upper country; Numenius, spec. (_Gaga_), about Ankober. The common snipe, some kinds of peewits, the spoonbill, and the flamingo, sometimes extend their migrations as far as Shoa.