106. E. Badian, "Rome and Antiochus the Great, a Study in Cold War," E. Badian, "Rome and Antiochus the Great, a Study in Cold War," Cla.s.sical Philology Cla.s.sical Philology (1959), pp. 8199. (1959), pp. 8199.

107. Livy, 34.60.4ff, 36.7.1ff. Livy, 34.60.4ff, 36.7.1ff.

108. Pliny the Elder, Pliny the Elder, The Natural History The Natural History, 5.148.

109. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal, pp Hannibal, pp. 2067.

110. Plutarch, Plutarch, Flaminius Flaminius, 20.

111. Lancel, Lancel, Carthage Carthage, pp. 4045.

112. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 331.

113. Charles-Picard, Charles-Picard, Daily Life in Carthage, p Daily Life in Carthage, p. 165; Lancel, Carthage, pp Carthage, pp. 5056.

114. Appian, Appian, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, 69.

115. Appian, Appian, The Punic Wars The Punic Wars, 132.

116. Arnold J. Toynbee, Arnold J. Toynbee, Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life Hannibal's Legacy: The Hannibalic War's Effects on Roman Life, 2 volumes (London: Oxford University Press, 1965).

117. Cornell, "Hannibal's Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy," p. 104. Cornell, "Hannibal's Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy," p. 104.

118. Victor Davis Hanson, Victor Davis Hanson, Warfare and Agriculture in Cla.s.sical Greece Warfare and Agriculture in Cla.s.sical Greece (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998). (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998).

119. T. J. Cornell, T. J. Cornell, Cambridge Ancient History Cambridge Ancient History, second edition (London: Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp. 334, 413; M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (London: Chatto and Windus, 1980), p. 81; Goldsworthy, (London: Chatto and Windus, 1980), p. 81; Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 364.

120. Cornell, "Hannibal's Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy," p. 105. Cornell, "Hannibal's Legacy: The Effects of the Hannibalic War on Italy," p. 105.

121. Goldsworthy, Goldsworthy, The Punic Wars, p The Punic Wars, p. 362.

122. Lancel, Lancel, Hannibal Hannibal, pp. 2123.

EPILOGUE: THE SHADOW OF CANNAE.

1. See for example Daly, See for example Daly, Cannae, p Cannae, p. ix ("The battle of Cannae may be the most studied battle in history; it has almost certainly had the most important effect on the development of military tactics."); Dodge, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 379; Lancel, Hannibal, p Hannibal, p. 107 ("it is not surprising that Hannibal's military masterpiece has influenced the ideas of war theorists, as far as Clausewitz and even beyond.").

2. Ed. and transl. George T. Dennis, Ed. and transl. George T. Dennis, Maurice's Strategikon Maurice's Strategikon (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), p. 27. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984), p. 27.

3. Charles Oman, Charles Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages (New York: Burt Franklin, 1924), vol. 2, pp. 2657. (New York: Burt Franklin, 1924), vol. 2, pp. 2657.

4. Niccol Machiavelli, Niccol Machiavelli, The Prince The Prince, trans. Luigi Ricci, chs. 31, 53, and 44.

5. Machiavelli, Machiavelli, The Prince The Prince, ch. 17.

6. Niccol Machiavelli, Niccol Machiavelli, The Art of War The Art of War, transl. Ellis Farneworth (Indianapolis, Ind.: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965), p. 120.

7. Ibid., p. 112. Ibid., p. 112.

8. Geoffrey Parker, "The Limits to Revolutions in Military Affairs: Maurice of Na.s.sau, the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), and the Legacy," Geoffrey Parker, "The Limits to Revolutions in Military Affairs: Maurice of Na.s.sau, the Battle of Nieuwpoort (1600), and the Legacy," The Journal of Military History The Journal of Military History, vol. 71, no. 2 (2007), pp. 3389.

9. Ibid., pp. 3456. Ibid., pp. 3456.

10. This conclusion is based in part on a personal correspondence with John A. Lynn and Geoffrey Parker, neither of whom recalled any further discussions of Cannae in the military writings of the enlightenment. This conclusion is based in part on a personal correspondence with John A. Lynn and Geoffrey Parker, neither of whom recalled any further discussions of Cannae in the military writings of the enlightenment.

11. Parker, Parker, "The Limits of Revolutions in Military Affairs," pp "The Limits of Revolutions in Military Affairs," pp. 3578.

12. Terence M. Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg: The Untimely Modernity of Schlieffen's Cannae Program," Terence M. Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg: The Untimely Modernity of Schlieffen's Cannae Program," The Journal of Military History The Journal of Military History, vol. 67, no. 3 (2003), p. 744.

13. Terence Zuber, "The Schlieffen Plan Reconsidered," Terence Zuber, "The Schlieffen Plan Reconsidered," War in History War in History, vol. 6 (199); Terence Zuber, Inventing the Schlieffen Plan Inventing the Schlieffen Plan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).

14. Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg," pp. 7579. Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg," pp. 7579.

15. I owe these observations to Bruce Gudmudsson, personal correspondence March 31, 2009. I owe these observations to Bruce Gudmudsson, personal correspondence March 31, 2009.

16. This phrase was suggested by Dennis Showalter; Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg," pp. 76470. This phrase was suggested by Dennis Showalter; Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg," pp. 76470.

17. Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg," pp. 76971. Holmes, "Cla.s.sic Blitzkrieg," pp. 76971.

18. Wolf Heckmann, Wolf Heckmann, Rommel's War in Africa Rommel's War in Africa (London: Doubleday, 1981), p. 113. (London: Doubleday, 1981), p. 113.

19. Antony Beevor, Antony Beevor, Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 19421943 Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege: 19421943 (London: Penguin, 1999), p. 297. (London: Penguin, 1999), p. 297.

20. Carlo D'Este, Carlo D'Este, Patton: A Genius for War(New Patton: A Genius for War(New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 704. York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 704.

21. Carlo D'Este, Carlo D'Este, Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), p. 594. (New York: Henry Holt, 2002), p. 594.

22. Martin Blumenson, Martin Blumenson, The Patton Papers: 19401945 The Patton Papers: 19401945 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), p. 594. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974), p. 594.

23. Cited in Goldsworthy, Cited in Goldsworthy, Cannae Cannae, cover page.

GLOSSARY OF LATIN, MILITARY, AND TECHNICAL TERMSala-Literally "wing." The allied operational equivalent of a Roman legion. Its configuration and armament are uncertain but are presumed to have been similar to that of a legion. Such units were accompanied by cavalry numbering nine hundred, or triple the size of the Roman horse units a.s.signed to a legion.aristeia-A Greek term for a serial display of heroic behavior.as-The basic Roman bronze currency at the beginning of the Second Punic War.augurs-Those who interpreted the signs and portents. Augurs were not career priests but came from the leading families and had normal career patterns.auspicia-Those phenomena that were believed to reveal the will of the G.o.ds and were derived from a number of sources, including the internal organs of sacrificed animals.Barca-Derived from the Punic word for "thunderbolt," this was a nickname given to Hamilcar, father of Hannibal, and was subsequently used by historians to designate members of the family line and their supporters. "Barcid" is also used as a noun and adjective to refer to the Barca family.campus Martius-The Field of Mars. An area outside of Rome used for ceremonial purposes including meetings of the Comitia Centuriata.censors-Two Roman magistrates normally elected at five-year intervals to hold a census and a.s.sign men to the various a.s.semblies, including-most critical-the senate.centurion-A key leader of the infantry ranks. Roughly equivalent in function to noncommissioned officers in the U.S. military.century-Half a maniple, and also a voting unit in the Comitia Centuriata, since the origin of the century was the people at arms.Cisalpine Gaul-That part of northern Italy inhabited by Gallic tribes south of the Alps.clients-Those dependent in one way or another upon a Roman patron. Clients could include local farmers or workers, citizens defended in court, former soldiers, and even foreigners.Comitia Centuriata-The a.s.sembly responsible for electing consuls, praetors, and censors, and for voting on war or peace.Comitia Tributa-A tribal a.s.sembly that voted for lesser magistrates, such as quaestors, along with pa.s.sing legislation.Concilium Plebis-The council of plebs. Its functions were basically the same as those of the Comitia Tributa, except that patricians were not included. This body elected plebeian tribunes and pa.s.sed legislation.consul-Foremost magistrate of the Roman republic; two were elected annually. The role was largely a military one, and a consul had the power to make life-and-death decisions outside of Rome.contubernium-A squad of eight Roman soldiers who ate and slept together. The smallest and most intimate unit in the army structure.council of elders-A key body of Carthaginian notables, it represented the oligarchic element of the government. Continuity was probably maintained by a control element of either 104 judges or 30 key councilors, or possibly both.Cunctator-"The Delayer." The nickname applied to Fabius Maximus by the Romans.cursus honorum-Literally the "course of honors." This is the sequential order of elected office for men of the senatorial cla.s.s, the highest being consul.denarius-Silver coin circulated by Rome for the first time during the Second Punic War.dictator-A single Roman magistrate chosen in emergencies to a.s.sume supreme power for a term not to exceed six months. During this time his imperium trumped all other magistrates', with the exception of tribunes of the plebs.equites-Literally "hors.e.m.e.n." This was a group of wealthy Romans that during the Second Punic War was made up mostly of senators. This group occupied the eighteen centuries of hors.e.m.e.n in the Comitia Centuriata, and each was ent.i.tled to a state-supplied mount for service in the cavalry. Each man wore a gold ring as an insignia.extraordinarii-A detachment of picked allied troops at the personal disposal of a Roman general.gens-A clan or group of families sharing a common (second) name (e.g., "Cornelius" in the name Publius Cornelius Cornelius Scipio). The Roman republic was dominated by a relatively few key gens, such as the Aemilii, Claudii, Fabii, and Cornelii. Scipio). The Roman republic was dominated by a relatively few key gens, such as the Aemilii, Claudii, Fabii, and Cornelii.gladius-The characteristic Roman cut-and-thrust short sword, likely adopted from the Spanish, thus the term "gladius hispaniensis." "gladius hispaniensis."hasta-The traditional Roman thrusting spear. By the time of Hannibal's invasion, the hasta hasta was probably still employed only by the was probably still employed only by the triarii triarii.hastati-Heavy infantry of the first line of maniples in the triplex acies triplex acies. While these troops originally carried the hasta hasta, the traditional Roman thrusting spear, by the time of Cannae, they were armed with the pilum pilum and and gladius gladius.imperium-A generalized power to rule, on the order of the Chinese Mandate of Heaven, except it was divisible and rotated yearly. Among magistrates who held it, the imperium was virtually without limit, subject only to certain rights held by all Roman citizens.imperium pro-The extension of the imperium through the process of prorogation, usually at the end of a yearly term of office. A consul or praetor (occasionally others) might receive this extension so that he could continue operating as a proconsul or propraetor after new magistrates had been elected. This proved a useful instrument for overseas governance and military operations.legion-The primary operational element of the Roman army, normally with a strength of forty-two hundred (twelve hundred velites velites, twelve hundred hastati hastati, twelve hundred principes principes, and six hundred triarii) triarii) plus three hundred citizen cavalry. In special circ.u.mstances, such as at Cannae, these numbers could be increased. plus three hundred citizen cavalry. In special circ.u.mstances, such as at Cannae, these numbers could be increased.legiones Cannenses-Strictly speaking, these are the units organized around the survivors of the Battle of Cannae, but the term came to include other defeated troops who were sent to join the survivors of Cannae in disgrace and exile.lictor-A bodyguard a.s.signed to Roman magistrates (dictators got twenty-four, consuls twelve and praetors six). Outside of Rome, each lictor carried an ax wrapped in a bunch of rods. This insignia connoted the magistrates' right to inflict corporal and capital punishment.maniple-Literally "handful." Maniples were at the time of the Second Punic War the basic tactical unit of a legion. Besides velites velites, a legion had ten maniples each of hastati, principes hastati, principes, and triarii triarii. Each maniple of the first two elements had 120 men, but each maniple of the triarii triarii had only 60 men. Each maniple was made up of two centuries. had only 60 men. Each maniple was made up of two centuries.master of horse-The junior a.s.sociate of a Roman dictator. Like the dictator, the master of horse had a six-month term of duty.n.o.biles-Members of a Roman family whose relative had achieved consular rank at some point in the past.novus h.o.m.o-A "new man" or one who is the first in his family to reach the consulship.ovation-A kind of consolation prize for a commander who did something heroic but not sufficient enough to be granted a triumph. The commander and his soldiers either marched or rode on horseback into the city of Rome, to the acclaim of the populace.patrician-The higher of the two basic designations of Roman citizens (the other being plebeian). The term roughly equates to "first families." By the time of the Second Punic War patricians had lost much of their political potency, since a number of plebeian families had reached the consulship. Thus, "patricians" and "n.o.biles" "n.o.biles" were decidedly not synonymous. were decidedly not synonymous.patron-The other half of the client-patron relationship. A patron was a person who had a number of dependents and looked after their interests. In return he could demand their loyalty and support.pectorale-A small plate worn on the chest of most Roman line infantry as a heart protector.pilum-The heavy javelin or throwing spear used by hastati hastati and and principes principes, generally at the outset of combat.plebs-All Roman citizens except patricians. At the time of the Second Punic War the connotation of "commoner" was belied by the fact that several plebeian families such as the Fulvii Flacci and Semp.r.o.nii Gracchi were virtually as wealthy and influential as any patrician equivalent.praetor-An important elected magistrate at the tier below consul. During the Second Punic War, four praetors were elected each year and received the imperium, which enabled them to command in wartime in the absence of a consul.principes-Heavy infantry of the second line of maniples in the triplex acies triplex acies. They were armed in the same manner as the hastati hastati.Punic-From the Latin punicus punicus or Phoenician, the term refers to Carthage and all things and people Carthaginian. or Phoenician, the term refers to Carthage and all things and people Carthaginian.quinquereme-The standard Carthaginian warship during the Second Punic War. It was a ram-bearing galley, and the exact configuration of its oarsmen remains uncertain. Roman quinqueremes were probably similar to Carthaginian models, though they may have differed in details and features.scutum-The heavy shield of the Roman legionary.senate-A consultative council, and the only one of the Roman a.s.semblies that met in continuous session. Senatorial authority involved advising consuls, generally on foreign policy. Of all Roman governing elements, it was the most powerful, but that power was shrouded.senatus consultum-Strictly speaking, this was the "advice" arising from a senatorial discussion and vote; in a deferential society like Rome, it had nearly the force of law.spolia opima-The most honorable spoil, refers to the armor that a Roman commander would strip off an enemy leader after killing him in single combat.suffete-Senior executives of the Carthaginian government. Two suffetes were elected annually by the time of the Second Punic War.triarii-The third line of troops in the triplex acies triplex acies. At the time of Cannae they were likely armed with the hasta hasta, the traditional Roman thrusting spear.tribunes of the plebs-Officials originally elected to protect the interests of the plebs in the face of the patricians. Tribunes retained the power to veto legislation and acts of the magistrates.tribunes of the soldiers (tribuni militum) (tribuni militum)-The six officers a.s.signed to each legion. They were generally young men of senatorial rank with political ambitions.triplex acies-The three-line checkerboard pattern into which Roman heavy infantry characteristically deployed.triumph-The honor accorded to a commander who had won a victory over a foreign enemy. A personal parade would be held in the city of Rome, with the recipient in a chariot followed by his troops and sometimes by the defeated enemy leader on his way to execution. All were cheered by the Roman populace.turma-The basic tactical unit of Roman cavalry.velites-Roman light troops or skirmishers. Twelve hundred were attached to each legion and were apportioned equally over all thirty maniples.

ABOUT THE AUTHORROBER

T L. O'C L. O'CONNELL was a member of the U.S. Intelligence community for three decades. Upon retirement he became a visiting professor at the Naval Postgraduate School. He is the author of four histories: was a member of the U.S. Intelligence community for three decades. Upon retirement he became a visiting professor at the Naval Postgraduate School. He is the author of four histories: Of Arms and Men, Sacred Vessels, Ride of the Second Horseman Of Arms and Men, Sacred Vessels, Ride of the Second Horseman, and Soul of the Sword Soul of the Sword, along with the novel Fast Eddie Fast Eddie. He is married and has two grown children.