New York Sun New York Sun NYW.

New York World New York World ProvJ Providence Journal Providence Journal PS.

Pitt field Sun Pitt field Sun RT.

Railway Times Railway Times RG.

Railroad Gazette Railroad Gazette SA.

Scientific American Scientific American SEP.

Sat.u.r.day Evening Post Sat.u.r.day Evening Post USMDR.

United States Magazine and Democratic Review United States Magazine and Democratic Review

PUBLISHED PRIMARY SOURCES.

Fowler William W. Fowler, William W. Fowler, Ten Years in Wall Street Ten Years in Wall Street (Hartford: Worthington, Dustin, & Co., 1870) (Hartford: Worthington, Dustin, & Co., 1870) Hone Allan Nevins, ed., Allan Nevins, ed., The Diary of Philip Hone, 18281851 The Diary of Philip Hone, 18281851 (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1936) (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1936) Manning (3, 4, or 7) William R. Manning, ed., William R. Manning, ed., Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 18311860 Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States: Inter-American Affairs, 18311860 (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), vol. 3 (1934); vol. 4 (1934); vol. 7 (1936) (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), vol. 3 (1934); vol. 4 (1934); vol. 7 (1936) Medbery James K. Medbery, James K. Medbery, Men and Mysteries of Wall Street Men and Mysteries of Wall Street (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1870) (Boston: Fields, Osgood, 1870) Smith Matthew Hale Smith, Matthew Hale Smith, Twenty Years Among the Bulls and Bears of Wall Street Twenty Years Among the Bulls and Bears of Wall Street (Hartford: J. B. Burr, 1870) (Hartford: J. B. Burr, 1870) Soule Frank Soule, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, Frank Soule, John H. Gihon, and James Nisbet, The Annals of San Francisco The Annals of San Francisco (New York: D. Appleton, 1855) (New York: D. Appleton, 1855) Staten Island Church Tobias Alexander Wright, ed., Tobias Alexander Wright, ed., Collections of the New York Records, Genealogical and Biographical Society Collections of the New York Records, Genealogical and Biographical Society, vol. 4: Staten Island Church Records Staten Island Church Records (New York: n.p., 1909) (New York: n.p., 1909) Stonington Reports Annual Reports of the New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company, 1833 to 1874 Annual Reports of the New York, Providence, and Boston Rail Road Company, 1833 to 1874 (Westerly, R.I.: 1874); copy in Library of Congress (Westerly, R.I.: 1874); copy in Library of Congress Strong (1, 2, 3, or 4) Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., Allan Nevins and Milton Halsey Thomas, eds., The Diary of George Templeton Strong The Diary of George Templeton Strong (New York: MacMillan, 1952), vol. 1: (New York: MacMillan, 1952), vol. 1: Young Man in New York, 18351849 Young Man in New York, 18351849, vol. 2: The Turbulent Fifties, 18501859 The Turbulent Fifties, 18501859, vol. 3: The Civil War, 18601865 The Civil War, 18601865, vol. 4: Post-War Years, 18651875 Post-War Years, 18651875

SECONDARY SOURCES.

AHR.

American Historical Review American Historical Review Albion Robert G. Albion, Robert G. Albion, The Rise of New York Port The Rise of New York Port (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1984, orig. pub. 1939) (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1984, orig. pub. 1939) ANB.

John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes, eds., American National Biography American National Biography (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) Baughman James P. Baughman, James P. Baughman, Charles Morgan and the Development of Charles Morgan and the Development of Southern Transportation Southern Transportation (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968) (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1968) BHR.

Business History Review Business History Review Burns E. Bradford Burns, E. Bradford Burns, Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 17981858 Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 17981858 (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1991) (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1991) Burrows & Wallace Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace, Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999) Confidence Men Karen Halttunen, Karen Halttunen, Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Cla.s.s Culture in America, 18301870 Confidence Men and Painted Women: A Study of Middle-Cla.s.s Culture in America, 18301870 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982) (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982) Croffut William A. Croffut, William A. Croffut, The Vanderbilts and the Story of their Fortune The Vanderbilts and the Story of their Fortune (New York: Belford, Clarke, 1886) (New York: Belford, Clarke, 1886) Folkman David I. Folkman Jr., David I. Folkman Jr., The Nicaragua Route The Nicaragua Route (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972) (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1972) Foner Eric Foner, Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 18631877 18631877 (New York: Harper & Row, 1988) (New York: Harper & Row, 1988) Gunn L. Ray Gunn, L. Ray Gunn, The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York, 18001860 The Decline of Authority: Public Economic Policy and Political Development in New York, 18001860 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988) (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988) Heyl (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6) Erik Heyl, Erik Heyl, Early American Steamers Early American Steamers (Buffalo: n.p.), vol. 1 (1953); vol. 2 (1956); vol. 3 (1964); vol. 4 (1965); vol. 5 (1967); vol. 6 (1969) (Buffalo: n.p.), vol. 1 (1953); vol. 2 (1956); vol. 3 (1964); vol. 4 (1965); vol. 5 (1967); vol. 6 (1969) HAHR.

Hispanic American Historical Review Hispanic American Historical Review JAH.

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Journal of Economic History Journal of Economic History JER.

Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic JModH Journal of Modern History Journal of Modern History Kemble John Haskell Kemble, John Haskell Kemble, The Panama Route, 18481869 The Panama Route, 18481869 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1943) Klein Maury Klein, Maury Klein, The Life and Legend of Jay Gould The Life and Legend of Jay Gould (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986) (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986) Lane Wheaton J. Lane, Wheaton J. Lane, Commodore Vanderbilt: An Epic of the Steam Age Commodore Vanderbilt: An Epic of the Steam Age (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942) (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1942) McPherson James M. McPherson, James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) Morrison John H. Morrison, John H. Morrison, History of American Steam Navigation History of American Steam Navigation (New York: Stephen Daye Press, 1959, orig. pub. 1903) (New York: Stephen Daye Press, 1959, orig. pub. 1903) NYHis New York History New York History NYHSQ.

New-York Historical Society Quarterly New-York Historical Society Quarterly Stokes I. N. Phelps Stokes, I. N. Phelps Stokes, The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 14981909 The Iconography of Manhattan Island, 14981909 (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 19151928), vols. 16 (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 19151928), vols. 16 Taylor George Rogers Taylor, George Rogers Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, 18151860 The Transportation Revolution, 18151860 (New York: Rinehart, 1951) (New York: Rinehart, 1951) WMQ.

William and Mary Quarterly William and Mary Quarterly Wood Gordon Wood, Gordon Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Vintage, 1993) (New York: Vintage, 1993)

INDIVIDUAL AND COMPANY NAMES.

AO.

Aaron Ogden Aaron Ogden AS.

Augustus Sch.e.l.l Augustus Sch.e.l.l ATC.

Accessory Transit Company Accessory Transit Company CFA.

Charles Francis Adams Jr. Charles Francis Adams Jr.

CM.

Charles Morgan Charles Morgan COH.

Charles O. Handy Charles O. Handy CtP Courtlandt Palmer Courtlandt Palmer CJV.

Cornelius J. Vanderbilt Cornelius J. Vanderbilt CKG.

Cornelius K. Garrison Cornelius K. Garrison CV.

Cornelius Vanderbilt, 17941877 Cornelius Vanderbilt, 17941877 DDT.

Daniel D. Tompkins Daniel D. Tompkins EC.

Erastus Corning Sr. Erastus Corning Sr.

EMS.

Edwin M. Stanton Edwin M. Stanton HFC.

Horace F. Clark Horace F. Clark HG.

Horace Greeley Horace Greeley HR.

Hudson River Railroad Company Hudson River Railroad Company HRR.

New York & Harlem Railroad Company New York & Harlem Railroad Company JB.

James Buchanan James Buchanan JHB.

James H. Banker James H. Banker JMC.

John M. Clayton John M. Clayton JLW.

Joseph L. White Joseph L. White JMD.

John M. Davidson John M. Davidson JRL.

John R. Livingston John R. Livingston JWR.

John W. Richmond John W. Richmond LS&MS.

Lake Sh.o.r.e & Michigan Southern Railway Company Lake Sh.o.r.e & Michigan Southern Railway Company NYC.

New York Central Railroad Company New York Central Railroad Company NYC&HR.

New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company New York Central & Hudson River Railroad Company TG.

Thomas Gibbons Thomas Gibbons WG.

William Gibbons William Gibbons WGM.

William Gibbs McNeill William Gibbs McNeill WDL.

William D. Lewis William D. Lewis WHV.

William H. Vanderbilt William H. Vanderbilt WLM.

William L. Marcy William L. Marcy WmC William Comstock William Comstock

PART ONE CAPTAIN.

One The Islander The Islander 1 NYT NYT, November 13, 1877. For reporting on the opening of the trial, see almost any New York newspaper starting on this date.2 Annual Report of the Comptroller of the Currency Annual Report of the Comptroller of the Currency (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876), 4569. I am including national, state, and private banks in calculating this figure, but I am leaving out savings banks. Even so, this figure somewhat exaggerates money stock, as it includes all coin and bullion, much of which was not in circulation. Note that the (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1876), 4569. I am including national, state, and private banks in calculating this figure, but I am leaving out savings banks. Even so, this figure somewhat exaggerates money stock, as it includes all coin and bullion, much of which was not in circulation. Note that the New York Times New York Times, July 15, 2007, calculated that Vanderbilt was the second-wealthiest figure in American history by comparing his estate to the size of the national economy. Such estimates are questionable, due to the poor quality of economic statistics in the nineteenth century.3 CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," CFA, "A Chapter of Erie," NAR NAR, July 1869.4 Mark Twain, "Open Letter to Com. Vanderbilt," Mark Twain, "Open Letter to Com. Vanderbilt," Packard's Monthly Packard's Monthly, March 1869.5 On the emergence of the term "business man," see Sven Beckert, On the emergence of the term "business man," see Sven Beckert, The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 The Monied Metropolis: New York City and the Consolidation of the American Bourgeoisie, 18501896 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 2567. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 2567.6 Isaac Lea to Horatio King, September 26, 1859, SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; Isaac Lea to Horatio King, September 26, 1859, SED 45, 36th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 11; NYT NYT, February 9, 1859.7 See, for example, See, for example, NYH NYH, April 17, 1855.8 Lane, 410; Lane, 410; Staten Island Advance Staten Island Advance, June 29, 1907.9 Burrows & Wallace, 5089, 12235; Michael Kammen, Burrows & Wallace, 5089, 12235; Michael Kammen, Colonial New York: A History Colonial New York: A History (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), 12860, 241; Oliver A. Rink, "Before the English (16091664)," in Milton M. Klein, ed., (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1975), 12860, 241; Oliver A. Rink, "Before the English (16091664)," in Milton M. Klein, ed., Empire State: A History of New York Empire State: A History of New York (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 213; Joyce D. Goodfriend, "Writing/Righting Dutch Colonial History," (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 213; Joyce D. Goodfriend, "Writing/Righting Dutch Colonial History," NYHis NYHis 80, no. 1 (January 1999): 528; Cathy Matson, 80, no. 1 (January 1999): 528; Cathy Matson, Merchants & Empire: Trading in Colonial New York Merchants & Empire: Trading in Colonial New York (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1998), 410; Richard Middleton, (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1998), 410; Richard Middleton, Colonial America: A History, 16071760 Colonial America: A History, 16071760 (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992), 828; (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1992), 828; NYH NYH, January 14, 1877.10 Firth Haring Fabend, "The Synod of Dort and the Persistence of Dutchness in Nineteenth-Century New York and New Jersey," Firth Haring Fabend, "The Synod of Dort and the Persistence of Dutchness in Nineteenth-Century New York and New Jersey," NYHis 77 NYHis 77, no. 3 (July 1996): 273300; Peter O. Wacker, "The Dutch Culture Area in the Northeast, 16091800," New Jersey History New Jersey History 104, nos. 12 (spring and summer 1986): 122; Martin Bruegel, 104, nos. 12 (spring and summer 1986): 122; Martin Bruegel, Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 38; Goodfriend, 26; Rink, 61, 1057. (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 38; Goodfriend, 26; Rink, 61, 1057.11 Fabend; Wacker; Goodfriend, 26; Shane White, Fabend; Wacker; Goodfriend, 26; Shane White, Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 17701810 Somewhat More Independent: The End of Slavery in New York City, 17701810 (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 427, 18990. (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1991), 427, 18990.12 Fabend; Bruegel, 38; Rink, 61, 1057; White, 427, 18990; Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood (17761825)," in Klein, 229305, esp. 248; Goodfriend, 26; Rocellus S. Guernsey, Fabend; Bruegel, 38; Rink, 61, 1057; White, 427, 18990; Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood (17761825)," in Klein, 229305, esp. 248; Goodfriend, 26; Rocellus S. Guernsey, New York City and Vicinity During the War of 181215 New York City and Vicinity During the War of 181215 (New York: C. L. Woodward, 188995), 1:4750; First Census of the United States, Richmond County, New York; Ira K. Morris, (New York: C. L. Woodward, 188995), 1:4750; First Census of the United States, Richmond County, New York; Ira K. Morris, Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island, New York Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island, New York, vol. 2 (Staten Island: Ira Morris, 1900), 46; Burrows & Wallace, 5189. As Allan Kulikoff notes, The Origins of American Capitalism The Origins of American Capitalism (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 303, it is important not to go too far in describing American agriculture as "subsistence farming." Early on, Northern farmers took part in both local and extended market exchanges. James A. Henretta, "The 'Market' in the Early Republic," (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 303, it is important not to go too far in describing American agriculture as "subsistence farming." Early on, Northern farmers took part in both local and extended market exchanges. James A. Henretta, "The 'Market' in the Early Republic," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 18 (spring 1998): 289304, observes, "Clearly the United States economy during the early republic was primarily a market-based, price-driven system. But... that economy also included elements of an older barter economy that was imbedded in the social structure of many communities." The Dutch-English contrast in market orientation must be considered relative, not absolute. 18 (spring 1998): 289304, observes, "Clearly the United States economy during the early republic was primarily a market-based, price-driven system. But... that economy also included elements of an older barter economy that was imbedded in the social structure of many communities." The Dutch-English contrast in market orientation must be considered relative, not absolute.13 Numerous informal periauger ferries ran from Staten Island to New York (and often to New Jersey). CVs appears to have started in about 1800, competing with the Van Duzer family which began to run boats across the harbor as early as 1788; Ira K. Morris, Numerous informal periauger ferries ran from Staten Island to New York (and often to New Jersey). CVs appears to have started in about 1800, competing with the Van Duzer family which began to run boats across the harbor as early as 1788; Ira K. Morris, Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island Morris's Memorial History of Staten Island (New York: Memorial Publishing, 1898), 1:3915. (New York: Memorial Publishing, 1898), 1:3915. Periauger Periauger was p.r.o.nounced as well as spelled in various ways; the most common alternate was pettiauger (used in the New York Custom House registration books). The name appears to be related to "periagua" or "pirogue," a sea going canoe common to Central and South America, first encountered by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. See Peter Kemp, ed., was p.r.o.nounced as well as spelled in various ways; the most common alternate was pettiauger (used in the New York Custom House registration books). The name appears to be related to "periagua" or "pirogue," a sea going canoe common to Central and South America, first encountered by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. See Peter Kemp, ed., The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea The Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 651. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1976), 651.14 The earliest published stories about CVs family and early life appeared in the 1850s. See The earliest published stories about CVs family and early life appeared in the 1850s. See SA SA, June 18, 1853; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; James Parton, Famous Americans of Recent Times Famous Americans of Recent Times (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1867), 37790; Lane, 913; Croffut, 1017 (including the quote about Phebe Hand Vanderbilt); Bruegel, 54. Regarding Phebe's apparent career as a moneylender, see (Boston: Ticknor & Fields, 1867), 37790; Lane, 913; Croffut, 1017 (including the quote about Phebe Hand Vanderbilt); Bruegel, 54. Regarding Phebe's apparent career as a moneylender, see Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson et al Phebe Vanderbilt v. Charles M. Simonson et al. April 17, 1844, file D-CH 177-V, Court of Chancery, NYCC. The best evidence that Phebe did indeed store her money in the clock is a reference to it in a poem by CVs son-in-law James M. Cross in 1863; see Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 Memorial of the Golden Wedding of Cornelius and Sophia Vanderbilt, December 19, 1863 (New York: Baker & G.o.dwin, 1864), 27, copy at Duke. (New York: Baker & G.o.dwin, 1864), 27, copy at Duke.15 Bruegel, 545; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Bruegel, 545; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5612. (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5612.16 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 230. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 230.17 First Census of the United States; Taylor, 68; Walter Licht, First Census of the United States; Taylor, 68; Walter Licht, Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century Industrializing America: The Nineteenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), xiii-xiv. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1995), xiii-xiv.18 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' att.i.tudes toward commerce, see 43976. John Lauritz Larson, Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' att.i.tudes toward commerce, see 43976. John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 37, stresses that the founding generation of the republic saw the need for transportation improvements. The trade ratios are imprecise at best, and reflect registered tonnage engaged in foreign and domestic trade; see Allan R. Pred, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 37, stresses that the founding generation of the republic saw the need for transportation improvements. The trade ratios are imprecise at best, and reflect registered tonnage engaged in foreign and domestic trade; see Allan R. Pred, Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 17901840 Urban Growth and the Circulation of Information: The United States System of Cities, 17901840 (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 7, 1049; Doug la.s.s C. North, (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 7, 1049; Doug la.s.s C. North, The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 The Economic Growth of the United States, 17901860 (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1961), 2435, 43, 250; Elisha P. Dougla.s.s, (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1961), 2435, 43, 250; Elisha P. Dougla.s.s, The Coming of Age of American Business: Three Centuries of Enterprise, 16001900 The Coming of Age of American Business: Three Centuries of Enterprise, 16001900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 39; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 39; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 121; Diane Lindstrom, (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 121; Diane Lindstrom, Economic Development in the Philadelphia Region, 18101850 Economic Development in the Philadelphia Region, 18101850 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 318; Kulikoff, 303; Countryman, 314. For key arguments in the debate over the emergence of capitalism in the American countryside, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978), 318; Kulikoff, 303; Countryman, 314. For key arguments in the debate over the emergence of capitalism in the American countryside, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 12044; Henretta, "The 'Market' in the Early Republic," 289304; Joyce Appleby "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118; and Appleby, 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118; and Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 2000), 125, 5690, 25066. Appleby in particular argues forcefully and well that Americans embraced the market as a force of liberation. (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 2000), 125, 5690, 25066. Appleby in particular argues forcefully and well that Americans embraced the market as a force of liberation.19 Taylor, 68; Licht, xiii-xiv; Edmund M. Blunt, Taylor, 68; Licht, xiii-xiv; Edmund M. Blunt, Blunt's Stranger's Guide to the City of New-York Blunt's Stranger's Guide to the City of New-York (New York: Edmund M. Blunt, 1817), 43; Guernsey, 1:133; John Lambert, (New York: Edmund M. Blunt, 1817), 43; Guernsey, 1:133; John Lambert, Travels Through Canada, and the United States of North America, in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 Travels Through Canada, and the United States of North America, in the Years 1806, 1807, and 1808 (London: C. Cradock, 1814), 2:55; David H. Wallace, ed., "'From the Windows of the Mail Coach': A Scotsman Looks at New York State in 1811," (London: C. Cradock, 1814), 2:55; David H. Wallace, ed., "'From the Windows of the Mail Coach': A Scotsman Looks at New York State in 1811," NYHSQ NYHSQ 40, no. 3 (July 1956): 26496. 40, no. 3 (July 1956): 26496.20 Lambert, 2:49. Lambert, 2:49.21 Albion, 19, 30, 2201; Lambert, 2:634; Bayrd Still, "New York City in 1824: A Newly Discovered Description," Albion, 19, 30, 2201; Lambert, 2:634; Bayrd Still, "New York City in 1824: A Newly Discovered Description," NYHSQ NYHSQ 46, no. 2 (April 1962): 13770. 46, no. 2 (April 1962): 13770.22 Diary of John Adams, excerpted in T. J. Stiles, ed., Diary of John Adams, excerpted in T. J. Stiles, ed., Founding Fathers Founding Fathers (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999), 42; Wallace, "From the Windows." (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999), 42; Wallace, "From the Windows."23 Guernsey, 329, 478; Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 22730; Lambert, 2:56, 63; Burrows & Wallace, 35960, 3714; Guernsey, 329, 478; Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 22730; Lambert, 2:56, 63; Burrows & Wallace, 35960, 3714; Blunt's Stranger's Guide Blunt's Stranger's Guide, 3441, 43, 45; Tyler Anbinder, Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum Five Points: The 19th-Century New York City Neighborhood That Invented Tap Dance, Stole Elections, and Became the World's Most Notorious Slum (New York: Free Press, 2001), 1415; Sean Wilentz, (New York: Free Press, 2001), 1415; Sean Wilentz, Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Cla.s.s, 17881850 Chants Democratic: New York City and the Rise of the American Working Cla.s.s, 17881850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 25; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1984), 25; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," NYHSQ NYHSQ 43, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114. 43, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114.24 Taylor, 314; Ratner et al., 2123; Robertson, 824; Nettels, 292304; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Banks, Kinship, and Economic Development: The New England Case," Taylor, 314; Ratner et al., 2123; Robertson, 824; Nettels, 292304; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Banks, Kinship, and Economic Development: The New England Case," JEH JEH 46, no. 3 (September 1986): 64767; Burrows & Wallace, 338; Doug la.s.s, 739; John Denis Haeger, 46, no. 3 (September 1986): 64767; Burrows & Wallace, 338; Doug la.s.s, 739; John Denis Haeger, John Jacob Astor: Business and Finance in the Early Republic John Jacob Astor: Business and Finance in the Early Republic (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 626; Geoffrey Gilbert, "Maritime Enterprise in the New Republic: Investment in Baltimore Shipping, 17891793," (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1991), 626; Geoffrey Gilbert, "Maritime Enterprise in the New Republic: Investment in Baltimore Shipping, 17891793," BHR BHR 58, no. 1 (spring 1984): 1429; Janet A. Riesman, "Republican Revisions: Political Economy in New York after the Panic of 1819," 144, and Gregory S. Hunter, "The Manhattan Company: Managing a Multi-Unit Corporation in New York, 17991842," 12446, in William Pencack and Conrad Ed.i.c.k Wright, eds., 58, no. 1 (spring 1984): 1429; Janet A. Riesman, "Republican Revisions: Political Economy in New York after the Panic of 1819," 144, and Gregory S. Hunter, "The Manhattan Company: Managing a Multi-Unit Corporation in New York, 17991842," 12446, in William Pencack and Conrad Ed.i.c.k Wright, eds., New York and the Rise of American Capitalism: Economic Development and the Social and Political History of an American State, 17801870 New York and the Rise of American Capitalism: Economic Development and the Social and Political History of an American State, 17801870 (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1989); Wilentz, 2335. Stuart M. Blumin notes the highly personal nature of the eighteenth-century urban economy in (New York: New-York Historical Society, 1989); Wilentz, 2335. Stuart M. Blumin notes the highly personal nature of the eighteenth-century urban economy in The Emergence of the Middle Cla.s.s: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 The Emergence of the Middle Cla.s.s: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 26. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 26.25 Herman A. Krooss, ed., Herman A. Krooss, ed., A Doc.u.mentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States A Doc.u.mentary History of Banking and Currency in the United States (New York: Chelsea House, 1965), 90, 1059. (New York: Chelsea House, 1965), 90, 1059.26 Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124; Licht, xvxvii; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124; Licht, xvxvii; Sidney Ratner, James H. Soltow, and Richard Sylla, The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making The Evolution of the American Economy: Growth, Welfare, and Decision Making (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1057; Nathan Miller, (New York: Basic Books, 1979), 1057; Nathan Miller, The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Ca.n.a.l Period, 17921838 The Enterprise of a Free People: Aspects of Economic Development in New York State During the Ca.n.a.l Period, 17921838 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), 67; Curtis P. Nettels, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1962), 67; Curtis P. Nettels, The Emergence of a National Economy, 17751815 The Emergence of a National Economy, 17751815 (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962), 292; Kulikoff, 303; W. T. Newlyn and R. P. Bootle, (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962), 292; Kulikoff, 303; W. T. Newlyn and R. P. Bootle, The Theory of Money The Theory of Money (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 118; Leslie V. Brock, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), 118; Leslie V. Brock, The Currency of the American Colonies, 17001764: A Study in Colonial Finance and Imperial Relations The Currency of the American Colonies, 17001764: A Study in Colonial Finance and Imperial Relations (New York: Arno Press, 1975), 237, 756; Jack Weatherford, (New York: Arno Press, 1975), 237, 756; Jack Weatherford, The History of Money: From Sandstone to Cybers.p.a.ce The History of Money: From Sandstone to Cybers.p.a.ce (New York: Crown, 1997), 11236; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, (New York: Crown, 1997), 11236; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 17881800 The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 17881800 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 2356; Ross M. Robertson, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 2356; Ross M. Robertson, History of the American Economy History of the American Economy, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964), 82, 1278, 144; Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 323. Lindstrom, 1, argues that household manufacturing peaked in 1815. Margaret G. Myers discusses bills of exchange and the personal nature of credit in (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 323. Lindstrom, 1, argues that household manufacturing peaked in 1815. Margaret G. Myers discusses bills of exchange and the personal nature of credit in The New York Money Market The New York Money Market, vol. 1: Origins and Development Origins and Development (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 4657. Robert E. Wright, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1931), 4657. Robert E. Wright, The Wealth of Nations Rediscovered: Integration and Expansion in American Financial Markets, 17801850 The Wealth of Nations Rediscovered: Integration and Expansion in American Financial Markets, 17801850 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 31821, discusses the inherent problems with bills of exchange. Edwin J. Perkins, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 31821, discusses the inherent problems with bills of exchange. Edwin J. Perkins, American Public Finance and Financial Services, 17001815 American Public Finance and Financial Services, 17001815 (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), 26173, discusses the transition from informal relationships to formal inst.i.tutions in credit and finance, and the lack of interstate inst.i.tutions. Bruegel offers an excellent discussion of book debt and personal relationships in trade, 423. On the shilling, Spanish money, and money of account in general, see (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1994), 26173, discusses the transition from informal relationships to formal inst.i.tutions in credit and finance, and the lack of interstate inst.i.tutions. Bruegel offers an excellent discussion of book debt and personal relationships in trade, 423. On the shilling, Spanish money, and money of account in general, see MM MM, April 1852. The New York County Clerk's office abounds with lawsuits over unpaid promissory notes; see, for example, Isaac Spencer Jr. v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen Isaac Spencer Jr. v. Daniel Drew, Nelson Robinson, Robert W. Kelley, and Daniel B. Allen, March 20, 1848, file 1848951A, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC.27 Fritz Redlich and Webster M. Christman, "Early American Checks and an Example of Their Use," Fritz Redlich and Webster M. Christman, "Early American Checks and an Example of Their Use," BHR BHR 41, no. 3 (autumn 1967): 285302; Elkins and McKitrick, 11461; Burrows & Wallace, 3102; Myers, 1:817; Miller, 789. It should be stressed that Hamilton remained immersed in mercantilistic thinking; he sought to harness the merchant economy to the new federal government to enhance national power, and failed in his attempt to create a manufacturing sector through federal direction; see Wood, 2624. 41, no. 3 (autumn 1967): 285302; Elkins and McKitrick, 11461; Burrows & Wallace, 3102; Myers, 1:817; Miller, 789. It should be stressed that Hamilton remained immersed in mercantilistic thinking; he sought to harness the merchant economy to the new federal government to enhance national power, and failed in his attempt to create a manufacturing sector through federal direction; see Wood, 2624.28 Thomas Cochran, "The Business Revolution," Thomas Cochran, "The Business Revolution," AHR AHR 79, no. 5 (December 1974): 144966; Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," 79, no. 5 (December 1974): 144966; Pauline Maier, "The Revolutionary Origins of the American Corporation," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 50, no. 1 (January 1993): 5184; Shaw Livermore, "Advent of Corporations in New York," NYHis NYHis 16, no. 3 (July 1935): 24598; Oscar Handlin and Mary F. Handlin, "Origins of the American Business Corporation," 16, no. 3 (July 1935): 24598; Oscar Handlin and Mary F. Handlin, "Origins of the American Business Corporation," JEH JEH 5, no. 1 (May 1945): 123; Morton J. Horwitz, 5, no. 1 (May 1945): 123; Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 The Transformation of American Law, 17801860 (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 11011; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 11011; Gregory A. Mark, "The Personification of the Business Corporation in American Law," University of Chicago Law Review University of Chicago Law Review 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipart.i.to and David B. Scilia, eds., 54, no. 4 (autumn 1987): 144183; Naomi R. Lamoreaux, "Partnerships, Corporations, and the Limits on Contractual Freedom in U.S. History: An Essay in Economics, Law, and Culture," in Kenneth Lipart.i.to and David B. Scilia, eds., Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture Constructing Corporate America: History, Politics, Culture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Ronald E. Seavoy, "Laws to Encourage Manufacturing: New York Policy and the 1811 General Incorporation Statute," (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 2965; Ronald E. Seavoy, "Laws to Encourage Manufacturing: New York Policy and the 1811 General Incorporation Statute," BHR BHR 46, no. 1 (spring 1972): 8595; Robert E. Wright, "Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 17811831," 46, no. 1 (spring 1972): 8595; Robert E. Wright, "Bank Ownership and Lending Patterns in New York and Pennsylvania, 17811831," BHR BHR 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060; Nettels, 28994; Dougla.s.s, 46; Bray Hammond, 73, no. 1 (spring 1999): 4060; Nettels, 28994; Dougla.s.s, 46; Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1467; James Willard Hurst, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1467; James Willard Hurst, The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 The Legitimacy of the Business Corporation in the Law of the United States, 17801970 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970), 1332. On the centrality of the financial sector, see especially Perkins and Wright, (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1970), 1332. On the centrality of the financial sector, see especially Perkins and Wright, Wealth of Nations Wealth of Nations, who argue with great clarity that a financial revolution was central to the other revolutions in the American economy, including that in transportation.29 Parton, 378; Parton, 378; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; Lane, 1011. Regarding CV's strength and endurance, see the reminiscences of his a.s.sistant, LW Dictation. On New York City's role as the center of a large hinterland of market farming, see Countryman, 314.30 For CVs early writing, see the following letters from CV to TG: February 2, 1819; February 24, 1819; January 5, 1820; November 16, 1821; March 1, 1822; November 4, 1822; all in GP; see also CV to JWR, n.d., RWG. A Staten Island historian speculated that CV "got his three months' education" at a Moravian academy; For CVs early writing, see the following letters from CV to TG: February 2, 1819; February 24, 1819; January 5, 1820; November 16, 1821; March 1, 1822; November 4, 1822; all in GP; see also CV to JWR, n.d., RWG. A Staten Island historian speculated that CV "got his three months' education" at a Moravian academy; Staten Island Advance Staten Island Advance, June 29, 1907.31 Lane, ion. Lane, ion.32 Lane, 1114; Parton, 378; Lane, 1114; Parton, 378; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865.33 NYTr NYTr, November 10, 1869; Paul A. Gilje, "On the Waterfront: Workers in New York City in the Early Republic, 18001850," NYHis NYHis 77, no. 4 (October 1996): 395426. 77, no. 4 (October 1996): 395426.34 Lambert, 2:64. Lambert, 2:64.35 This anecdote was often repeated in various forms in biographical material (see, for example, Croffut, 17). This version is taken from a brief memorandum of a conversation with This anecdote was often repeated in various forms in biographical material (see, for example, Croffut, 17). This version is taken from a brief memorandum of a conversation with CV CV, written by an unknown party, in the VFP The memorandum reflects some confusion, as do most anecdotes (it refers to CV being sixteen in 1812), but it appears to be the authentic record of a story told by CV himself.36 V. S. Naipaul, V. S. Naipaul, The Enigma of Arrival The Enigma of Arrival (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 77. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1987), 77.37 VFP; Croffut, 17; Lane, 13. VFP; Croffut, 17; Lane, 13.38 Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865.39 SA SA, June 18, 1853.40 Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; Croffut, 1718; Lane, 1314; Parton, 3789; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; SA SA, June 18, 1853.41 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 587. Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, 587.42 HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; John Komlos, "The Height and Weight of West Point Cadets: Dietary Change in Antebellum America," JEH JEH 47, no. 4 (December 1987): 897927. CV was described as running a "packet" ferry in 47, no. 4 (December 1987): 897927. CV was described as running a "packet" ferry in EP EP, February 4, 1818.43 HW HW, March 5, 1859; MM MM, January 1865; Parton, 37680; Lane, 1517; Croffut, 1921; Blunt's Stranger's Guide Blunt's Stranger's Guide, 207n, 223; Guernsey, 1:53. On CVs temper, see NYTr NYTr, March 27, 1878; NYW NYW, November 13, 14, 1877.44 Burrows & Wallace, 40923; Edward L. Beach, Burrows & Wallace, 40923; Edward L. Beach, The United States Navy: A 200-Year History The United States Navy: A 200-Year History (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 5171. (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1986), 5171.45 Guernsey, 1:116, 1203, 15960, 218, 31722; Burrows & Wallace, 4095; W. E. Apgar, "New York's Contribution to the War Effort of 1812," Guernsey, 1:116, 1203, 15960, 218, 31722; Burrows & Wallace, 4095; W. E. Apgar, "New York's Contribution to the War Effort of 1812," New-York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin New-York Historical Society Quarterly Bulletin 29, no. 4, 20312. 29, no. 4, 20312.46 Guernsey, 2:3012; Guernsey, 2:3012; MM MM, January 1865; Parton, 380; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877; NYTr NYTr, January 5, 1877; EP EP, September 13, 1813.47 Staten Island Church Records Staten Island Church Records, 106; Parton, 381; Lane, 203.48 Burrows & Wallace, 4278; George W. Cullum, Burrows & Wallace, 4278; George W. Cullum, Campaigns of the War of 181215 Against Great Britain Campaigns of the War of 181215 Against Great Britain (New York: James Miller, 1879), 1747. (New York: James Miller, 1879), 1747.49 Parton, 3812; Lane, 1819; Dorothy Kelly MacDowell, Parton, 3812; Lane, 1819; Dorothy Kelly MacDowell, Commodore Vanderbilt and His Family Commodore Vanderbilt and His Family (Hendersonville, N.C.: privately printed, 1989), 22; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," (Hendersonville, N.C.: privately printed, 1989), 22; Howard B. Rock, "A Delicate Balance: The Mechanics and the City in the Age of Jefferson," NYHSQ NYHSQ 63, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114. Many boatmen were black; see the testimony of Joseph Bonnington, July 1, 1820, GP, and "Thomas Gibbons against Isaac Morse," 63, no. 2 (April 1979): 93114. Many boatmen were black; see the testimony of Joseph Bonnington, July 1, 1820, GP, and "Thomas Gibbons against Isaac Morse," Cases of the Court of Errors of the State of New Jersey Cases of the Court of Errors of the State of New Jersey (November Term, 1821), 25371 (copy in GP), a lawsuit involving a slave who escaped with the aid of a free black ferry captain in 1818. (November Term, 1821), 25371 (copy in GP), a lawsuit involving a slave who escaped with the aid of a free black ferry captain in 1818.50 New York City Census, First Ward, 1816, NYMA. New York City Census, First Ward, 1816, NYMA.51 Frances Trollope, Frances Trollope, Domestic Manners of the Americans Domestic Manners of the Americans (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 36970. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949), 36970.52 Wilentz, 2360; Blumin, 2065, quotes on 26, 323, 64; Lambert, 2:90, 100; Albion, 23559. On the new a.s.sertiveness of the artisans in the Revolution, see especially Edward Countryman, Wilentz, 2360; Blumin, 2065, quotes on 26, 323, 64; Lambert, 2:90, 100; Albion, 23559. On the new a.s.sertiveness of the artisans in the Revolution, see especially Edward Countryman, A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981). (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981).53 Pred; Perkins, 2713, 35062; Wright, Pred; Perkins, 2713, 35062; Wright, Wealth of Nations Wealth of Nations, 1825; Albion, 23559; Guernsey, 2:51214; Ross M. Robertson, History of the American Economy History of the American Economy, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1964), 824. The discussion of promissory notes reflects the author's work in contemporary collections; see, for example, almost any lawsuit from this period in the Court of Common Pleas, NYCC; TG to George Johnston, February 2, 1810 ("In money transactions in the city I have always had a.s.surances that my paper would pa.s.s current"), and TG to David B. Ogden, June 1, 1816, GP.54 Guernsey, 2:4589, 48394; Wilentz, 23. Guernsey, 2:4589, 48394; Wilentz, 23.55 Wilentz, 23; Albion, 915. Wilentz, 23; Albion, 915.56 Lane, 225; Croffut, 26; Wilentz, 35; Morrison, 169; Lane, 225; Croffut, 26; Wilentz, 35; Morrison, 169; EP EP, November 20, 1812; NYH NYH, January 5, 14, 1877; NYW NYW, January 5, 1877; NYT NYT, January 5, 1877. The cost estimate of a boat is based on the sale of a fully equipped twenty-seven-ton periauger for $750 to TG, John C. Hatfield to TG, July 17, 1817, GP On the Chesapeake oyster schooners, and the role of Northern ships in the trade, see Geoffrey M. Footner, Tidewater Triumph: The Development and Worldwide Success of the Chesapeake Bay Pilot Schooner Tidewater Triumph: The Development and Worldwide Success of the Chesapeake Bay Pilot Schooner (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1998), 21325. The records of the New York Custom House, now with the National Archives, remain fragmentary at best, and the writings of earlier historians suggest that some have been lost. Morrison writes that the (Centreville, Md.: Tidewater Publishers, 1998), 21325. The records of the New York Custom House, now with the National Archives, remain fragmentary at best, and the writings of earlier historians suggest that some have been lost. Morrison writes that the Dread Dread was the first vessel registered under CVs name, but I could not find that enrollment record. On later enrollments of the was the first vessel registered under CVs name, but I could not find that enrollment record. On later enrollments of the General Wolcott General Wolcott and the and the Dread Dread, see Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, and Enrollment Number 21, February 26, 1821, vol. 12148, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA. The General Wolcott General Wolcott entry notes that it was "rebuilt from an open boat," indicating CVs longer-range ambitions. For a reference to another of CVs periaugers, the entry notes that it was "rebuilt from an open boat," indicating CVs longer-range ambitions. For a reference to another of CVs periaugers, the Thorn Thorn, as a schooner, see EP EP, January 8, 1821.57 John De Forest and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Daniel Morgan John De Forest and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Daniel Morgan, April 5, 1817, file 1817-#337, Court of Common Pleas, and Cornelius Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Phineas Carman and Cornelius P. Wyckoff Cornelius Vanderbilt and Cornelius Vanderbilt Jr. vs. Phineas Carman and Cornelius P. Wyckoff, May 26, 1817, file 1817-#1261, Court of Common Pleas, NYCC; TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP; Morrison, 44. For background on the Mayor's Court, see Richard B. Morris, "The New York City's Mayor's Court," in Leo Hershkowitz and Milton M. Klein, eds., Courts and Law in Early New York: Selected Essays Courts and Law in Early New York: Selected Essays (Port Washington, N.Y: National University Publications, 1978), 1929. (Port Washington, N.Y: National University Publications, 1978), 1929.58 Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' att.i.tudes toward commerce, see 43976. On the impact of the War of 1812 and the growth in banks, see Murray N. Rothbard, Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, quotes on 460, 462, 463, 474, 476; for his perceptive discussion of economics and Americans' att.i.tudes toward commerce, see 43976. On the impact of the War of 1812 and the growth in banks, see Murray N. Rothbard, The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies The Panic of 1819: Reactions and Policies (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 119. Janet A. Riesman discusses the intertwining of banking and American att.i.tudes toward commerce and credit in "Republican Revisions," 144. Unquestionably the end of the war provided a boon to economic growth (see Albion and Taylor), but I agree with Daniel Walker Howe, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962), 119. Janet A. Riesman discusses the intertwining of banking and American att.i.tudes toward commerce and credit in "Republican Revisions," 144. Unquestionably the end of the war provided a boon to economic growth (see Albion and Taylor), but I agree with Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath G.o.d Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 What Hath G.o.d Wrought: The Transformation of America, 18151848 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 5, in disagreeing with the "market revolution" thesis popularized by Charles Sellers, (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 5, in disagreeing with the "market revolution" thesis popularized by Charles Sellers, The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 The Market Revolution: Jacksonian America, 18151820 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For more arguments in the enormous debate over the emergence of capitalism, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991). For more arguments in the enormous debate over the emergence of capitalism, see Allan Kulikoff, "The Transition to Capitalism in Rural America," WMQ WMQ, 3rd ser., vol. 46, no. 1 (January 1989): 12044; Henretta, 289304; Appleby, "Vexed Story," 118; and Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 125, 5690, 25066.59 Rochefoucauldt-Liancourt, 440; Appleby, "Vexed Story;" Appleby, Rochefoucauldt-Liancourt, 440; Appleby, "Vexed Story;" Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution Inheriting the Revolution, 5591; Kulikoff, "Transition;" Lambert, 2:267, 33. On the trip by sloop from New York to Albany, see Hone, 905; Lambert, 2:419; Taylor, 1531.60 Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124. Taylor, 567; Pred, 14, 2077, 1124.61 For a fine survey of the issues of westward migration and transportation, see Howe, 21122. For a fine survey of the issues of westward migration and transportation, see Howe, 21122.62 For a splendid view of Broadway in 1819, clearly depicting the fashions of the day, see Stokes, vol. 3, plate 85. For a splendid view of Broadway in 1819, clearly depicting the fashions of the day, see Stokes, vol. 3, plate 85.63 Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA. Enrollment Number 248, July 16, 1817, vol. 12139, Port of New York Certificates of Enrolment [sic], Bureau of Marine Inspection and Navigation, RG 41, NA.64 Lane, 2225; TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP; Morrison, 44. Elizabethtown is now known as Elizabeth. It has often been said that CV himself renamed the Lane, 2225; TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP; Morrison, 44. Elizabethtown is now known as Elizabeth. It has often been said that CV himself renamed the Stoudinger Stoudinger the the Mouse Mouse, but it was advertised as the Mouse Mouse before CV took command; see before CV took command; see NBF NBF, November 13, 1817. Lane and Croffut depict CV on New Year's Eve pondering the growing importance of steam, then making a calculated decision to learn about it by working for TG TG's letter to Johnston, however, demonstrates the fortuitous nature of his hiring of CV as well as the fact that it took place more than a month before year's end.

Two The Duelist The Duelist 1 TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP. TG to Jonathan Johnston, November 24, 1817, GP.2 CV quoted in CV quoted in Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons Den D. Trumbull et al. v. Gibbons, April 10, 1849, 22 NJ L 117, 16.3 TG to Thomas Heyward Gibbons, September 15, 1786, TG to Thomas Heyward Gibbons, September 15, 1786, Georgia Gazette Georgia Gazette, September 14, 21, 1786, TG to George Johnston, February 2, 1810, George Johnston to TG, May 22, 1812, Pet.i.tion of James Field to the Honorable George Walters, 1783, WG to TG, January 23, 1785, TG to WG, January 27, 1785, Memorandum by WG, March 15, 1848, GP. See also Isaac Woodruff to TG, July 20, 1817, Isaac Woodruff Papers, NYHS. In 1819, TG was described as a man of "immense wealth" in AO v. TG AO v. TG, Supreme Court of Judicature of the State of New Jersey (February Term, 1819), 2 South. 5, 61236, 100515.4 Thomas Gamble, Thomas Gamble, Savannah Duels and Duellists, 17331877 Savannah Duels and Duellists, 17331877 (Savannah: Review Publishing & Printing, 1923), 414, 578; Carol S. Ebel, "Thomas Gibbons," (Savannah: Review Publishing & Printing, 1923), 414, 578; Carol S. Ebel, "Thomas Gibbons," ANB; ANB; see also George R. Lamplugh, see also George R. Lamplugh, Politics on the Periphery: Factions and Parties in Georgia, 17831806 Politics on the Periphery: Factions and Parties in Georgia, 17831806 (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1986). (Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 1986).5 For details on TG'S many holdings in New Jersey and Georgia, see a copy of TG'S will, Thomas Gibbons Papers, NYHS. TG described his move as a matter of climate and health; TG to Crawford Davison, June 1, 1818, GP. Various correspondence in the GP adumbrate the story of his illegitimate child, which he attempted to deny, against the advice of some of New York's leading attorneys. On New York's emerging role as creditor to Southern planters, see Philip S. Foner, For details on TG'S many holdings in New Jersey and Georgia, see a copy of TG'S will, Thomas Gibbons Papers, NYHS. TG described his move as a matter of climate and health; TG to Crawford Davison, June 1, 1818, GP. Various correspondence in the GP adumbrate the story of his illegitimate child, which he attempted to deny, against the advice of some of New York's leading attorneys. On New York's emerging role as creditor to Southern planters, see Philip S. Foner, Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict Business and Slavery: The New York Merchants and the Irrepressible Conflict (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 510; Albion, 95121. (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941), 510; Albion, 95121.6 Joanne B. Freeman, Joanne B. Freeman, Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic Affairs of Honor: National Politics in the New Republic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001); Nancy Isenberg; (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001); Nancy Isenberg; Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr (New York: Viking, 2007), 255404. See also Saul Cornell, (New York: Viking, 2007), 255404. See also Saul Cornell, The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 17881828 The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 17881828 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999). (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999).7 Bernard Bailyn, Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, enlarged ed. (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1992), 302; Frederic Cople Jaher, The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles The Urban Establishment: Upper Strata in Boston, New York, Charleston, Chicago, and Los Angeles (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 3, and, for an insightful discussion of the New York patricians before the Civil War, see 160250. See also Wood. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1982), 3, and, for an insightful discussion of the New York patricians before the Civil War, see 160250. See also Wood.8 Wood, 2545, 26970, 299300; Martin Bruegel, Wood, 2545, 26970, 299300; Martin Bruegel, Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 Farm, Shop, Landing: The Rise of a Market Society in the Hudson Valley, 17801860 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 156, 368, 206; Stuart M. Blumin, (Durham: Duke University Press, 2002), 156, 368, 206; Stuart M. Blumin, The Emergence of the Middle Cla.s.s: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 The Emergence of the Middle Cla.s.s: Social Experience in the American City, 17601900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 645; John Lauritz Larson, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 645; John Lauritz Larson, Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States Internal Improvement: National Public Works and the Promise of Popular Government in the Early United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 910. See also Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood," in Milton M. Klein, ed., (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 910. See also Edward Countryman, "From Revolution to Statehood," in Milton M. Klein, ed., The Empire State: A History of New York The Empire State: A History of New York (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 24256, 2648, 2957; Dixon Ryan Fox, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2001), 24256, 2648, 2957; Dixon Ryan Fox, The Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York The Decline of Aristocracy in the Politics of New York (New York: Columbia University Press, 1919), 5865. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1919), 5865.9 Countryman, "From Revolution," 24268; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Countryman, "From Revolution," 24268; Duc de La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada Travels Through the United States of North America, the Country of the Iroquois, and Upper Canada, in the Years 1795, 1796, and 1797; with an Authentic Account of Lower Canada (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5878; Blumin, 5864; Wood, 27186. Particularly insightful is Gunn, esp. 70, 803. As Gunn writes, 83, New York before the end of the War of 1812 remained "a society in which public and private roles were virtually indistinguishable." An amusing ill.u.s.tration of the Jeffersonian view of elite rule in the election of 1800 can be found in Eric Homberger, (London: R. Phillips, 1799), 5878; Blumin, 5864; Wood, 27186. Particularly insightful is Gunn, esp. 70, 803. As Gunn writes, 83, New York before the end of the War of 1812 remained "a society in which public and private roles were virtually indistinguishable." An amusing ill.u.s.tration of the Jeffersonian view of elite rule in the election of 1800 can be found in Eric Homberger, Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age Mrs. Astor's New York: Money and Social Power in a Gilded Age (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 37. See also Edward Countryman's (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 37. See also Edward Countryman's A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 17601790 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), which a.n.a.lyzes the radicalism of the Revolution and the conservative reaction. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), which a.n.a.lyzes the radicalism of the Revolution and the conservative reaction.10 Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Edward Countryman, Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Edward Countryman, The American Revolution The American Revolution (New York: Hill & w.a.n.g, 1985), 2245; Joyce Appleby, (New York: Hill & w.a.n.g, 1985), 2245; Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and the New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s Capitalism and the New Social Order: The Republican Vision of the 1790s (New York: New York University Press, 1984), 5, 145, 202, 4650, 545, 88. (New York: New York University Press, 1984), 5, 145, 202, 4650, 545, 88.11 On Livingston's life, see especially Cynthia Owen Philip, On Livingston's life, see especially Cynthia Owen Philip, Robert Fulton: A Biography Robert Fulton: A Biography (New York: Franklin Watts, 1985); Cynthia A. Kierner, (New York: Franklin Watts, 1985); Cynthia A. Kierner, Traders and Gentlefolk: The Livingstons of New York, 16751790 Traders and Gentlefolk: The Livingstons of New York, 16751790 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); George Dangerfield, (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); George Dangerfield, Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, 17461813 Chancellor Robert R. Livingston of New York, 17461813 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960); (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960); EP EP, February 26, 1802. Jaher, 16096, discusses the intermingling of proprietary with mercantile wealth and the legal profession. Albion, 23059, discusses the "merchant princes," noting the relative decline of the old families after 1815. I do not mean to suggest that British gentry or n.o.bility did not engage in trade; I am specifically referring to the image in fiction. Washington quoted in Larson, 9.12 Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Countryman, Countryman, "From Revolution," 369; Countryman, American Revolution, 22 American Revolution, 2245; Appleby, 5, 4655, 88. Gunn, 70, notes, "New York politics [had] a reputation for personalism and corruption unsurpa.s.sed in any other state." See also pages 122, 99143. Appleby has elaborated on the rising opposition to mercantilism in other works, including "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," Appleby, 5, 4655, 88. Gunn, 70, notes, "New York politics [had] a reputation for personalism and corruption unsurpa.s.sed in any other state." See also pages 122, 99143. Appleby has elaborated on the rising opposition to mercantilism in other works, including "The Vexed Story of Capitalism Told by American Historians," Journal of the Early Republic Journal of the Early Republic 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118, and 21, no. 1 (spring 2001): 118, and Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans Inheriting the Revolution: The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 2000). See also Bray Hammond, (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 2000). See also Bray Hammond, Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1457. The idea that the rise of a commercial society joined hands with political radicalism to undermine the culture of deference is central to Wood's thesis, 243347. See also Kierner, 20122, 2368; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 1457. The idea that the rise of a commercial society joined hands with political radicalism to undermine the culture of deference is central to Wood's thesis, 243347. See also Kierner, 20122, 2368; Dorothy Gregg, "John Stevens: General Entrepreneur, 17491838," in William Miller, ed., Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship Men in Business: Essays in the History of Entrepreneurship (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 1216; Charles W. McCurdy (Cambridge, Ma.s.s.: Harvard University Press, 1952), 1216; Charles W. McCurdy The Anti-Rent Era in New York Law and Politics, 18391865 The Anti-Rent Era in New York Law and Politics, 18391865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 24; David Hackett Fischer, (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 2