(6). _Sunan-i-Ibn Majah._ Ibn Majah[62] was born at 'Irak A.H. 209. This work contains 4,000 Traditions.

The Shia'hs reject these books and subst.i.tute five books[63] of their own instead. They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having been compiled more than four hundred years after the Hijra.

The belief which underlies the question of the authority of the Traditions is that before the Throne of G.o.d there stands a 'preserved Table,' on which all that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mind of man is 'noted in a distinct writing.' Through the medium of Gabriel, the Prophet had access to this. It follows then that the words of the Prophet are the words of G.o.d.

Of the four great "Canonical Legists" of Islam, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was the greatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no less than one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system of jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanifa, who is said to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, founded a system which is to this day the most powerful in Islam. The Hanifites, however, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard collections of Traditions as direct revelations of the will of {70} G.o.d. They range over a vast number of subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Quran. The Prophet's personal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions, his opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many questions of religious belief are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to them we must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of Islam. It is very difficult for any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse with Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and opinions, their thought and actions, are based on the Traditions.

Having thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to enter a little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them.

The cla.s.sification adopted by different authors may vary in some subordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standard Muhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadis-i-Quali, that is, an account of something the Prophet said; or Hadis-i-Fa'li, a record of something which he did; or Hadis-i-Taqriri, a statement of some act performed by other persons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid.

The Traditions may be cla.s.sed under two general heads:--

First.--_Hadis-i-Mutawatir_, that is, "an undoubted Tradition," the Isnad, or chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in which chain each narrator possessed all the necessary qualifications for his office.[64] Some authorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but most allow that the following is one: "There are no good works except with intention," for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intention of fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so doing.

Second.--_Hadis-i-Ahad._ The authority of this cla.s.s is {71} theoretically somewhat less than that of the first, but practically it is the same.

This cla.s.s is again sub-divided into two:--

(1). _Hadis-i-Sahih_, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary to go into the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahih if the narrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their habits, endowed with a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace with their neighbours. The following also are Sahih, though their importance as authorities varies. I arrange them in the order of their value. Sahih Traditions are those which are found in the collections made by Bukhari and Muslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though not in both; or, if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors, if it has been retained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention of Traditions; or lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of any other approved collector. For each of these cla.s.ses there is a distinct name.

(2). _Hadis-i-Hasan._ The narrators of this cla.s.s are not of such good authority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities; but these Traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards any practical use.[65] It is merely as a matter of cla.s.sification that they rank second.

In addition to these names, there are a number of other technical terms which have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the Isnad, and other points. A few may be mentioned.

(1). _Hadis-i-Z'aif_, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it have been persons whose characters were not above reproach, whose memories were bad, or who, worse still, were addicted to "bid'at," innovation, a habit now, as then, a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a {72} "weak Tradition" has little force; but few rival theologians agree as to which are, and which are not, "weak Traditions."

(2). _Hadis-i-Mua'llaq_, or a Tradition in the Isnad of which there is some break. If it begins with a Tabi' (one in the generation after that of the Companions), it is called "_Mursal_" the one link in the chain, the Companion, being wanting. If the first link in the chain of narrators begins in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on.

(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narrator concealed the name of his Imam, or where different narrators disagree, or where the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, or has been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into an account of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of this cla.s.s would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base any important doctrine.[66]

It is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can be contrary to the Quran. The importance attached to Tradition has been shown in the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation of an elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the Book and the Sunnat, G.o.d's word direct and G.o.d's word through the mind of the Prophet, are the foundation and sum of Islam, a fact not always taken into account by modern panegyrists of the system.

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CHAPTER III.

THE SECTS OF ISLaM.

It is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion, that the Muhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and the unanimity of its professors. In this chapter I propose to show how the great sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, and their consequent divergence in practice. There is much that is common ground to all, and of that some account was given in the first chapter on the "Foundations of Islam."

It was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed as to the essential foundations of the Faith. The Sunnis recognise four foundations, the Wahhabis two; whilst the Shia'hs reject altogether the Traditions held sacred by both Sunni and Wahhabi. The next chapter will contain a full account of the doctrines held by the Sunnis, and so no account of this, the orthodox sect, is given in this chapter.

The first breach in Islam arose out of a civil war. The story has been so often told that it need not be reproduced here at any length. 'Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalif of Islam. He is described as "the last and worthiest of the primitive Musalmans who imbibed his religious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet himself, and who followed to the last the simplicity of his character." He was a man calculated by his earnest devotion to the Prophet and his own natural graces to win, as he has done, the admiration of succeeding generations. A strong opposition, however, arose, and 'Ali was a.s.sa.s.sinated in a mosque at Kufa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting statements of historians of the rival sects, to arrive at the truth in all the details of the events which happened then; {74} but the generally received opinion is, that after the a.s.sa.s.sination of 'Ali, Hasan, his son, renounced his claim to the Khalifate in favour of his father's rival, Muavia. Hasan was ultimately poisoned by his wife, who, it is said, was instigated by Muavia to do the deed, in order to leave the coast clear for his son Yezid. The most tragic event has yet to come. Yezid, who succeeded his father, was a very licentious and irreligious man. The people of Kufa, being disgusted at his conduct, sent messengers to Husain, the remaining son of 'Ali, with the request that he would a.s.sume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to persuade him to let the people of Kufa first revolt, and thus show the reality of their wishes by their deeds. In an evil hour Husain started with a small band of forty hors.e.m.e.n and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain of Karbala he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. "We are few in number," said Husain, "and the enemy is in force. I am resolved to die. But you--I release you from your oath of allegiance; let all those who wish to do so leave me." "O Son of the Apostle of G.o.d!" was the reply, "what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of resurrection did we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies?" One by one these brave men fell beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain and his infant son alone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain sat upon the ground. The enemy drew near, but no one dared to kill the grandson of the Prophet. An arrow pierced the ear of the little boy and he died. "We came from G.o.d, and we return to him," were the pathetic words of Husain, as with a sorrowful heart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand. He then stooped down to drink some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing him thus stooping, the enemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of which wounded him in the mouth.

He fought bravely for a while, but at last fell covered with many wounds.

The schism between the Sunni and the Shia'h was now complete. {75}

The ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of Muharram refer to these historical facts, and help to keep alive a bitter feud; but to suppose that the only difference between the Shia'h and the Sunni is a mere dispute as to the proper order of the early Khalifs would be a mistake. Starting off with a political quarrel, the Shia'hs have travelled into a very distinct religious position of their own. The fundamental tenet of the Shia'h sect is the "divine right" of 'Ali the Chosen and his descendants. From this it follows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion to the Imam (or Pontiff); from which position some curious dogmas issue. The whole question of the Imamat is a very important one. The word Imam comes from an Arabic word meaning to aim at, to follow after. The term Imam then becomes equal to the word leader or exemplar. It is applied in this sense to Muhammad as the leader in all civil and religious questions, and to the Khalifs, his successors. It is also, in its religious import only, applied to the founders of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in a restricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque. It is with the first of these meanings that we have now to deal. It is so used in the Quran--"When his Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which he fulfilled, He said: 'I am about to make of thee an Imam to mankind;' he said: 'Of my offspring also?' 'My covenant,' said G.o.d, 'embraceth not the evil-doers.'" (Sura ii. 118.) From this verse two doctrines are deduced.

First, that the Imam must be appointed by G.o.d, for if this is not the case, why did Abraham say "of my offspring also?" Secondly, the Imam is free from sin, for G.o.d said: "My covenant embraceth not the evil-doer."

The first dispute about the Imamat originated with the twelve thousand who revolted from 'Ali after the battle of Siffin (657 A.D.), because he consented to submit to arbitration the dispute between himself and Muavia.

Some years after they were nearly all destroyed by 'Ali. A few {76} survivors, however, fled to various parts. Two at last settled in Oman, and there preached their distinctive doctrines. In course of time the people of Oman adopted the doctrine that the Imamat was not hereditary but elective, and that in the event of misconduct the Imam might be deposed.

'Abdullah-ibn-Ibadh (744 A.D.) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine, and from him the sect known as the 'Ibadhiyah takes its rise. The result of this teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the Imam of Oman. The 'Ibadhiyah seem to have always kept themselves independent of the Sunni Khalifs of Baghdad, and, therefore, would consider themselves free from any obligation to obey the Sultan of Turkey. From the ordinary Shia'hs they differ as regards the "divine right" of 'Ali and his children. The curious in such matters will find the whole subject well treated in Dr. Badger's "Seyyids of Oman."

The term Kharigite (Separatist) has since become the generic name for a group of sects which agree as to the need of an Imam, though they differ as to the details of the dogma. In opposition to this heresy of the Kharigite stands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the Shia'h. The Shia'hs hold that the Imamat must continue in the family of 'Ali, and that religion consists mainly in devotion to the Imam. The tragic end of 'Ali and his sons invested them with peculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end of their leaders, the Shi'ahs found consolation in the doctrine which soon found development, _viz._, that it was G.o.d's will that the Imamat should continue in the family of 'Ali. Thus a tradition relates that the Prophet said: "He of whom I am master has 'Ali also for a master." "The best judge among you is 'Ali." Ibn Abbas, a Companion says: "I heard the Prophet say: 'He who blasphemes my name blasphemes the name of G.o.d; he who blasphemes the name of 'Ali blasphemes my name.'" A popular Persian hymn shows to what an extent this feeling deepened. {77}

"Mysterious being! none can tell The attributes in thee that dwell; None can thine essence comprehend; To thee should every mortal bend-- For 'tis by thee that man is given To know the high behests of heaven."

The general idea is, that long before the creation of the world, G.o.d took a ray of light from the splendour of His own glory and united it to the body of Muhammad, to which He said: "Thou art the elect, the chosen, I will make the members of thy family the guides to salvation." Muhammad said: "The first thing which G.o.d created was my light, and my spirit."[67] The body of the Prophet was then in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the world was created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray of glory appear. It is well known to all Musalmans as the "Nur-i-Muhammadi"--light of Muhammad.

This "Nur" is said to be of four kinds. From the first kind G.o.d created His Throne, from the second the Pen of Fate, from the third Paradise, and from the fourth the state, or place of Spirits and all created beings. According to a statement made by 'Ali, Muhammad said that he was created from the light of G.o.d, whilst all other created beings were formed from the "light of Muhammad."[68]

This "light" descended to 'Ali, and from him pa.s.sed on to the true Imams, who alone are the lawful successors of the Prophet. Rebellion against them is sin; devotion to them the very essence of religion.

The doctrine of the Imamat has given rise to endless discussion and dissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of the Shia'h sect will show.

They are said to be thirty-two in number. The Shia'h proper is the largest and most influential of them. The following are the Shi'ah tenets regarding the Imam, based on one of their standard books of {78} divinity.[69] The Imam is the successor of the Prophet, adorned with all the qualities which he possessed. He is wiser than the most learned men of the age, holier than the most pious. He is the n.o.blest of the sons of men and is free from all sin original or actual: hence the Imam is called ma'sum (innocent.)[70] G.o.d rules the world by wisdom, hence the sending forth of prophets was a necessity; but it was equally necessary to establish the Imamat. Thus the Imam is equal to a prophet. 'Ali said: "In me is the glory of every prophet that has ever been." The authority of the Imam is the authority of G.o.d, for (I quote the Hyat-un-Nafis) "his word is the word of G.o.d and of the Prophet, and obedience to his order is inc.u.mbent." The nature of the Imam is identical with the nature of Muhammad, for did not 'Ali say: "I am Muhammad, and Muhammad is me." This probably refers to the possession by the Imam of the "light of Muhammad." The bodies of the Imams are so pure and delicate that they cast no shadow.[71] They {79} are the beginning and the end of all things. To know the Imams is the very essence of the knowledge which men can gain of G.o.d. "The Holy G.o.d calls the Imams His word, His hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and prohibitions, their actions too, He recognises as His own." As mediums between G.o.d and man they hold a far higher position than the prophets, for "the grace of G.o.d, without their intervention, reaches to no created being." These extravagant claims for the Imams culminate in the a.s.sertion that "for them a pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven, by which the actions of the Faithful are made known to them." The Imam is the supreme Pontiff, the Vicar of G.o.d on earth. The possession of an infallible book is not sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. Such wisdom and discernment as such a guide would require can only be found amongst the descendants of the Prophet. It is no longer, then, a matter of wonder, that in some cases, almost, if not entirely, divine honour is paid to 'Ali and his descendants.[72]

The Usul, or fundamental tenets of the Shia'h sect are five in number. (1) To believe in the unity of G.o.d, (2) To admit that He is just, (3) To believe in the divine mission of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is the chief of all, (4) To consider 'Ali the Khalif next in order after Muhammad, (5) To believe 'Ali's descendants from Hasan to Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, to be his true successors, and to consider all of them in character, position and dignity as raised far above all other Muslims. This is the doctrine of the Imamat.

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The first princ.i.p.al divisions of the Shia'h sect are the Isma'ilians and the Imamites. The latter believe in twelve Imams, reckoning 'Ali as the first.[73] The last of the twelve Abu'l-Qasim, is supposed to be alive still, though hidden in some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdi, "the guided." It is expected that he will reappear at the second advent of Christ. They say that he was born near Baghdad in the year 258 A.H. He afterwards mysteriously disappeared. When he was born the words, "Say: 'truth is come and falsehood is vanished: Verily falsehood is a thing that vanisheth,'" (Sura xvii. 83) were found written on his right arm. When he came into the world, he pointed with his fingers to heaven, sneezed, and said: 'Praise be to G.o.d, the Lord of the world.' A person one day visited Imam Hasan 'Askari (the eleventh Imam) and said: 'O son of the Prophet who will be Khalif and Imam after thee?' He brought out a child and said: 'if thou hadst not found favour in the eyes of G.o.d, He would not have shown thee this child; his name is that of the Prophet, and so is his patronymic,' (Abu 'l-Qasim). The sect who believe Mahdi to be alive at present, say that he rules over cities in the far west, and he is even said to have children. G.o.d alone knows the truth.[74]

The other large division, the Isma'ilians, agree with the Imamites in all particulars save one. They hold that after Sadiq, the sixth Imam, commenced what is called the succession of the "concealed Imams." They believe that there never can be a time when there shall be no Imam, but that he is now in seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts of secret societies, and has paved the way for a mystical religion, which often lands its votaries in atheism.[75] {81}

The Ghair-i-Mahdi (literally "without Mahdi") are a small sect who believe that Al-Mahdi will not reappear. They say that one Syed Muhammad of Jeypore was the real Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, and that he has now gone never more to return. They venerate him as highly as they do the Prophet, and consider all other Musalmans to be unbelievers. On the night called Lailat-ul-Qadr, in the month of Ramazan, they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers. After that act of devotion is over, they say: "G.o.d is Almighty, Muhammad is our Prophet, the Quran and Mahdi are just and true. Imam Mahdi is come and gone. Whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel." They are a very fanatical sect.

There is another small community of Ghair-i-Mahdis called the Da,iri, settled in the province of Mysore, who hold peculiar views on this point.

About four hundred years ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected some followers in the dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad. He called himself the Imam Mahdi, and said that he was superior to any prophet. He and his disciples, being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox Musalmans, fled to a village in the adjoining district of Mysore where their descendants, fifteen hundred in number, now reside. It is said that they do not intermarry with other Musalmans. The usual Friday service in the mosque is ended by the leader saying: "Imam Mahdi came and went away," to which the people respond: "He who does not believe this is a Kafir" (infidel).

There are several Traditions which refer to the latter days. "When of time one day shall be left, G.o.d shall raise up a man from among my descendants, who shall fill the world with justice, just as before him the world was full of oppression." And again: "The world shall not come to an end till the king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my family, and whose name is the same as mine." When Islam entered upon the tenth century of its existence, there was throughout Persia and India a millenarian movement.

Men {82} declared that the end was drawing near, and various persons arose who claimed to be Al-Mahdi. I have already mentioned two. Amongst others was Shaikh 'Alai of Agra. (956 A.H.) Shaikh Mubarak, the father of Abu'l-Fazl--the Emperor Akbar's famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh 'Alai and from him imbibed Mahdavi ideas. This brought upon him the wrath of the 'Ulama who, however, were finally overcome by the free-thinking and heretical Emperor and his vizier. There never was a better ruler in India than Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox Islam is concerned. The Emperor delighted in the controversies of the age. The Sufis and Mahdavis were in favour at Court. The orthodox 'Ulama were treated with contempt. Akbar fully believed that the millennium had come. He started a new era, and a new religion called the 'Divine Faith.' There was toleration for all except the bigoted orthodox Muslims. Abu'l-Fazl and others like him, who professed to reflect Akbar's religious views, held that all religions contained truth. Thus:--

"O G.o.d, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every language I hear spoken, people praise Thee!

Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee, Each religion says, 'Thou art one, without equal.'

If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee, Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes the mosque, But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple."

In this reign one Mir Sharif was promoted to the rank of a Commander of a thousand, and to an appointment in Bengal. His chief merit in Akbar's eyes was that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and the close advent of the millennium. He was a disciple of Mahmud of Busakhwan, the founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As this is another offshoot of the Shia'hs I give a brief account of them here. Mahmud lived in the reign of Timur and {83} professed to be Al-Mahdi. He also called himself the Shakhs-i-Wahid--the Individual one. He used to quote the verse, "It may be that thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmud) station." (Sura xvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had been advancing in purity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a certain degree, one Mahmud (glorious) would arise, and that then the dispensation of Muhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the Mahmud. He also taught the doctrine of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything was the Nuqtah-i-khak--earth atom. It is on this account that they are called the Nuqtawiah sect. They are also known by the names Mahmudiah and Wahidiah. Shah 'Abbas king of Persia expelled them from his dominions, but Akbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some amongst them to high offices of State.

This Mahdavi movement, arising as it did out of the Shia'h doctrine of the Imamat, is a very striking fact. That imposters should arise and claim the name and office of Al-Mahdi is not to be wondered at, but that large bodies of men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in men's hearts, and how they longed for a personal leader and guide.

The whole of the Shia'h doctrine on this point seems to show that there is in the human heart a natural desire for some Mediator--some Word of the Father, who shall reveal Him to His children. At first sight it would seem, as if the doctrine of the Imamat might to some extent reconcile the thoughtful Shia'h to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation and Mediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the perfect revealer of G.o.d's will; and as our Guide in life; but alas! it is not so. The mystic lore connected with Shia'h doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and vigour. A system of religious reservation, too, is a fundamental part of the system in its mystical developments, whilst all Shia'hs may lawfully practise "takia," or religious {84} compromise in their daily lives. It thus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a Shia'h may profess, as pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If he becomes a mystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as restrictions imposed by an Almighty Power. The omission of the one is a sin almost, if not quite, as bad as a breach, of the other. The advent of Mahdi is the good time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when the utmost freedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in many cases, becomes deadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact with these people can hardly credit. The practice of "takia," religious compromise, and the legality of "muta'h" or temporary marriages, have done much to demoralise the Shia'h community. The following words of a recent author descriptive of the Shia'h system are in the main true, though they do not apply to each individual in that system:--

"There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that men should escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine as the goal of human existence."[76]

The Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential body. They do not exist as a separate sect now. An account of them will be given in the next chapter.