Above all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by any chance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, another was always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science of abrogation, according to which some verses of the Quran abrogate others.

Muhammad found it necessary to shift {41} his stand-point more than once, and thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation.

Thus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At first there seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lest after all it might be a mockery. But as years rolled on confidence in himself and in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness in his utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by G.o.d and man; but more often the visions were weird and terrible. Tradition says:--"He roared like a camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces." Some strange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years or more the revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, to the Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men,[43] to the Warrior-Chief, as the founder of political unity among the Arab tribes.

A Muhammadan student, after pa.s.sing through a course of instruction in grammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stage when he is permitted to enter upon the study of "'Ilm-i-usul," or the exegesis of the Quran, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This done, he can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what the Fathers of Islam have to say. This science in one way fits him to be a commentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things "new and old" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others the things old. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islam which can reveal to the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on to deeper and more profound knowledge.

The greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the Quran by heart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentators have said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the {42} Prophet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by the Companions, their followers, and their followers' followers, who can point out a flaw in the Isnad (_i.e._ chain of narrators) of a Tradition quoted by an opponent, or maintain, by repeating the long list of names, the authority of the Isnad of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory, not critical ac.u.men, is the great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. The chief qualification of a Hafiz, a man who can repeat the whole Quran by heart, is not that he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be able to p.r.o.nounce each word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth, this is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood. The Sunnis say that no Shia'h can ever become a Hafiz, from which fact they draw the conclusion that the Shia'hs are heretics. In the early days of Islam, the great authorities on the question of the correct p.r.o.nunciation of the Quran were the Khalifs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, and 'Ali, and ten of the Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which Gabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islam. The effort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Quran failed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca, and so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book became current. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved surmountable. Abu Ibn Kab, one of the Companions, had become so famous as a reader that the Prophet himself said: "read the Quran under Abu Ibn Kab." These men remembered that Abu Ibn Kab had stated, that one day when scandalized at man after man who entered the mosque repeating the Quran in different ways, he spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: "O Abu Ibn Kab!

intelligence was sent to me to read the Quran in one dialect, and I was attentive to the Court of G.o.d, and said: 'make easy the reading of the Quran to my sects.' These instructions were sent to me a second time saying: 'read the {43} Quran in two dialects.' Then I turned myself to the Court of G.o.d saying: 'make easy the reading of the Quran to my sects.' Then a voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the Quran in seven dialects.'"

This removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the Prophet in thus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was looked upon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the "haft qira,at," or seven readings of the Quran, now recognised.

In the Quran compiled by the order of the Khalif Osman there were no vowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islam they found great difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian, then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The seven famous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various modes of reading, are Imam Nafi of Madina, Imam Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imam Abu 'Umr of Basra, Imam Hamza of Kufa, Imam Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imam 'asim of Kufa, Imam Kisae of Kufa.[44] These learned men affixed different vowel-points in many places in the Quran, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. In India the "qira,at--reading,--of Imam 'asim is followed by both Sunnis and Shia'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the Quran privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service.

During the month of Ramazan the Quran is repeated every night in the mosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each night. The Imam of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qari) who commences according to one of the seven recognised readings (qira,at), must keep to the same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves a great exercise of the memory. A good Hafiz will know the whole seven varieties. The various readings thus introduced, though {44} unimportant in their nature,[45] amount to about five hundred in number. The following are a few ill.u.s.trations. In the second Sura Abu 'Umr reads: "Nor shall ye be questioned concerning that which _they_ have done;" but 'asim reads: "That which _ye_ have done." This is caused by putting two dots above the line instead of below it. Again 'asim reads: "_Enter ye_ the gates of h.e.l.l"

(Sura x.x.xix. 73), but Nafi reads: "_Ye will be made to enter_ h.e.l.l,"--that is, by a slight change the pa.s.sive is subst.i.tuted for the active voice.

These are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is touched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's antic.i.p.ation of the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islam. At times, too, fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous Readers whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A.H., Ibn Shanabud, a resident of Baghdad, ventured to introduce some different readings in his recital of the Quran. The people of Baghdad, not knowing these, were furious, and the Khalif was compelled to cast the offender into prison. A Council of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy Ibn Shanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his "readings," but after being whipped seven times he said: "I renounce my manner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of the ma.n.u.script drawn up by the Khalif Osman, and that which is generally received."[46]

Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the science of grammar. As Islam spread, it became necessary to expound the Quran to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then became an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in {45} doubt as to the lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was no command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any directions on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat," that is, neither a command based on the Quran nor one based on any saying or act of the Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty.

Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalif of Baghdad, was a patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his, Abu'l 'Abbas Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that the Quranists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenly reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, in connection with the Quran, a science of doubtful legality. The friend to whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he saw the blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to Abu'l 'Abbas Thalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'" The Prophet had now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islam.

Muslims now quote the Quran as a perfect model of style; it may be well to remember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it is but natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of Arabic grammar.[47]

The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very important branch of the "'Ilm-i-usul." It is said that the Quran was brought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The Prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and {46} answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "The infidels say, 'unless the Quran be sent down to him all at once'--but in this way we establish thy heart in it, _in parcels have we parcelled it out to thee_" (Sura xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective; it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. "Yet it is a glorious Quran, _written on the preserved Table_." (Sura lx.x.xv. 22).

Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When we have _recited_ it then follow thou the _recital_." (Sura lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is referred to in the verse: "We have _sent down_ to thee an Arabic Quran."

(Sura xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Quran was given[48] was not without its difficulties. Some pa.s.sages contradicted others, some were difficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. The knowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as they are called, thus: "To thee have we sent down this book of monitions, that _thou mayest make clear to men_ what hath been sent down to them."

(Sura xvi. 46).

Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished between abrogated and abrogating verses, {47} and communicated this knowledge to his Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the verses and the circ.u.mstances which led to each distinct revelation being made."[49] The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with the whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to their followers, the Taba'in, who in their turn pa.s.sed it on to their followers the Taba-i-Taba'in. The art of writing then became common, and the business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the sayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a pa.s.sage in the Quran was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion was beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the second must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were perfect. Thus early in the history of Islam were the principles of exegesis fixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and cla.s.s.

The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before,[50]

though he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition hitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It will thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator, with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islam. The perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature--

"While as the world rolls on from age to age, And realms of thought expand, The letter stands without expanse or range, Stiff as a dead man's hand."

The technical terms which the student must know, and {48} the definitions of which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the words, the sentences, the use of the words of the Quran, and the deduction of arguments from pa.s.sages in the book.

I. The words of the Quran are divided into four cla.s.ses.

1. _Kha.s.s_, or special words. These are sub-divided into three cla.s.ses.

First, words which relate to genus, _e.g._ mankind. Secondly, words which relate to species, _e.g._ a man, which refers to men as distinguished from women. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, _e.g._ Zeid, which is the name of a special individual.

2. _'Amm_, or common or collective names, such as "people."

3. _Mushtarik_, or words which have several significations, as the Arabic word "'ain," which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word "Sulat," if connected with G.o.d, may mean mercy, as "Sulat Ullah," the mercy of G.o.d; if with man, it may mean either "namaz," a stated liturgical service, or "du'a," prayer in its ordinary sense, _e.g._ Sulat-ul-Istisqa (prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namaz.

4. _Muawwal_, words which have several significations, all of which are possible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Sura cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray unto the Lord and _slay_ (the victims)." The word translated "slay" is in Arabic "nahr,"

which has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanifa render it, "sacrifice," and add the words (the "victims"). The followers of Ibn Shafa'i say it means "placing the hands on the breast in prayer."

This ill.u.s.trates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the former, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context settles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right.

These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of defining any word in the Quran gained, the {49} student pa.s.ses on to consider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great cla.s.ses,--the "Obvious," and the "Hidden."

This division is referred to in the following pa.s.sage of the Quran. "He it is who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves _perspicuous_; these are the basis (literally "mother") of the book, and others are _figurative_. But they whose hearts are given to err follow its figures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know its interpretation, but G.o.d.[51] And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believe in it, it is all from G.o.d.'" (Sura iii. 3).

This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and allegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentator must know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the particular pa.s.sage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether it abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place or not; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which the context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon it, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confines the order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the Companions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply reproduce their opinions.[52] But to return from this digression. Sentences are Zahir--"Obvious," or Khafi--"Hidden." Obvious sentences are divided into four cla.s.ses.

I. (1). _Zahir_, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he who hears it at once understands its meaning {50} without seeking for any explanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated, action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of G.o.d. All penal laws and the rules regulating the subst.i.tution of one religious act for another, _e.g._ almsgiving instead of fasting, must be based on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences.

(2). _Na.s.s_, a word commonly used for a text of the Quran, but in its technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaning of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The following sentence ill.u.s.trates both Zahir and Na.s.s: "Take in marriage of such other women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is Zahir, because marriage is here declared lawful; it is Na.s.s, because the words "one, two, three, four," which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having more than four wives.

(3). _Mufa.s.sir_, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word in it to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels prostrated themselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the words "save Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind of sentence may be abrogated.

(4). _Mukham_, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning of which there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: "G.o.d knoweth all things." This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on such sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest degree of obedience to G.o.d's command.

The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or apparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must give place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or changed by any of the preceding, or Mufa.s.sir by Na.s.s, &c.

The other great division of sentences is that of

II. (1). _Khafi_ or hidden. Such are those sentences in {51} which other persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or expression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or female, cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings." (Sura v. 42). The word for thief is "Sariq," and in this pa.s.sage it is understood to include highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings are Khafi or hidden under it.

(2). _Muskhil_, or ambiguous, The following is given as an ill.u.s.tration: "And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silver and goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver." The difficulty here is that bottles are not made of silver, but of gla.s.s. The commentators say, however, that gla.s.s is dull in colour, though it has some l.u.s.tre, whilst silver is white, and not so bright as gla.s.s. Now it may be, that the bottles of Paradise will be like gla.s.s bottles as regards their l.u.s.tre, and like silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to ascertain the meaning.

(3.) _Mujmal._ These are, first, sentences which may have a variety of interpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of several meanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the Traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may be doubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty." (Sura lxx. 19.) In this verse the word "halu'"--hasty--occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it not been for the following words, "when evil toucheth him, he is full of complaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh n.i.g.g.ardly," its meaning would not have been at all easy to understand.

The following is an ill.u.s.tration of the first kind of _Mujmal_ sentences: "Stand for prayer (salat) and give alms," (zakat.) Both salat and zakat are 'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so they applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that "salat" might mean the ritual of public prayer, {52} standing to say the words "G.o.d is great," or standing to repeat a few verses of the Quran; or it might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakat" is growing.

The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving," and said, "Give of your substance one-fortieth part."

(4.) _Mutashabih._ These are sentences so difficult that men cannot understand them, a fact referred to in Sura iii. 3. (Ante. p. 49), nor will they do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their meaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the commencement of some of the Suras.[53] Such expressions also as "G.o.d's hand," "The face of G.o.d," "G.o.d sitteth," &c., come under this category.

The next point to be considered is the _use_ of words in the Quran, and here again the same symmetrical division into four cla.s.ses is found, _viz_:--

(1.) _Haqiqat_, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as "ruku'," a prostration, and "salat" in the sense of prayer.

(2.) _Majaz_, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as "salat" in the sense of "namaz" a liturgical service.

(3.) _Sarih_, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, "Thou art _divorced_," "Thou art _free_."

(4.) _Kinayah_, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, require the aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: "Thou art separated," which may, as it {53} stands alone, mean "Thou art divorced."

This cla.s.s also includes all p.r.o.nouns the meaning of which is only to be known from the context, _e.g._ one day the Prophet not knowing who knocked at his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, "It is I." Muhammad answered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thou art." The p.r.o.noun "I" is here 'kinayah.'

The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is "istidlal," or the science of deducing arguments from the Quran. This too is divided into four sections, as follows:--

(1.) _Ibarat_, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced, shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is reasonable." (Sura ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made.

First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, it must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of supporting the mother is inc.u.mbent on the father, it shows that the relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother.

Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind.

(2.) _Isharat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order in which the words are placed.

(3.) _Dalalat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic "uff") (Sura xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is argued that children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on "dalalat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but G.o.d loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Sura v. 69.) The word translated "aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'una, "they run." From this the argument is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those whom "G.o.d loveth not," and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be given to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of "dalalat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal laws.

(4.) _Iqtiza._ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions: "whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a believer from slavery." (Sura iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed, is that the slave should be his own property.