"All have permission to depart."

Some then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard.

When the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, the people say:--

"We commit thee to earth in the name of G.o.d and in the religion of the Prophet."

If the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of the grave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkir and Nakir come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is excavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in the lower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a position that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the face towards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people say:--

"O G.o.d deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us not in trouble."

Each person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says; "Bismillah" (in the name of G.o.d), and the Surat-ul-Iklas (Sura cxii) and then places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or boards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons present with both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The first time they say: "From it (earth) We created you"; the second time, "and into it will We return you;" the third time, "and out of it will We bring you a second time." (Sura xx. 57).

Then they say this Du'a: "O G.o.d I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not to trouble the deceased."

When the attendants are filling up the grave they say:--

"O G.o.d, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments of the grave."

When the grave is completely filled up, one man pours {212} water three, or five, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.[220]

One of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the Talqin (instruction):--

"O servant of G.o.d, and child of a female servant of G.o.d.

O son of (such an one),[221] remember the faith you professed on earth to the very last; that is, your witness that there is no G.o.d but G.o.d, and that certainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and h.e.l.l and the Resurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment, and say: 'I confess that G.o.d is my Lord, Islam my religion, Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of G.o.d) my Prophet, the Quran my guide, the K'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O G.o.d, keep him (the deceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination (by Munkir and Nakir) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thou most Merciful."

The other persons present then offer a Fatiha.[222]

After this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Surat-ul-Ya Sin (x.x.xvi) and the Surat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then retiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fatiha, for by this time the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is one of great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally that night in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two nafl rak'ats of a Namaz should be said. After the Fatiha in each rak'at the worshipper should repeat the ayat-ul-Kursi {213} (Throne-verse)[223] three times; then the Surat-ut-Takisur (102) eleven times; then the Surat-ul-Iklas (112) three times.

After the Salam and the Darud the worshipper lifts up both hands, and with great humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be bestowed on the deceased.

(viii). Salat-ul-Istikhara.--This is a Namaz said before undertaking any special work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he says the following Du'a: "O G.o.d, make me know what is best for me, and keep me from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what is best for me." He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects to receive a special inspiration (Ilham) which will give him the needed directions and guide him aright as to the matter in hand.

(ix). Salat-ut-Tarawih.--This consists of twenty rak'ats recited each evening during the month of Ramazan. An account of these will be given in the next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazan fast are described.

3. ROZA, THE THIRTY DAYS' FAST OF RAMAZaN.--Fasting is defined to be abstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There must also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should say: "O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and future sin." When the fast is ended he says: "O G.o.d I fasted for Thy sake and had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftar) the fast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act."

It is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazan. This is laid down in the words: "O believers! a fast is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you." "As to the month Ramazan, in which the Quran was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that {214} illumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast." (Sura ii. 179-181). The Ijma' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are excused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time.

"He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days.

G.o.d wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil the number of days." (Sura ii. 181). This is called a qaza fast, that is, a fast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted.

If a person makes a vow that, if G.o.d grants a certain request, he will fast (roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed (roza-i-kafara), in both cases it is a wajib duty to keep the fast. Some hold that the former is a farz duty and base their a.s.sertion on the verse: "Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them pay their vows." (Sura xxii. 30).

All other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. 199). Such are the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyam-i-Biz (bright days)--the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'aban, that is, the day following the night called Shab-Barat, and on the 30th of each month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the person who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. According to Bukhari, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her husband. The reverse is not the case, for "Men are superior to women on account of the qualities with which G.o.d hath gifted the one above the other, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for them." (Sura iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophet and said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him for doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent from heaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of the inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words "chide those {215} (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them into beds apart, and scourge them." It is mustahab to fast some days in the month Shawwal, for Muhammad is reported to have said: "Whosoever keeps the fast of Ramazan and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwal, it is as if his whole life were a fast."

If on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not visible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person who declares that Ramazan has commenced. Imam Shafa'i requires two, but the following Tradition is quoted against him: "An Arab came to the Prophet and said: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believe that there is no G.o.d but G.o.d? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His Apostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billal, the Mu,azzin, said: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'" This proves that the evidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter.

The fast is destroyed in the following cases:--if when cleansing the teeth a little water should pa.s.s into the throat, if food is eaten under compulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose or a wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it was night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazan fast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night a portion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in a cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a qaza fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken.

In the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atone for his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot be done, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, he must give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such meals daily for sixty days.

The fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by {216} applying antimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by kissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things during the day-time. The Imam As-Shafa'i declared that it was very wrong indeed to do either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the following Tradition handed down by Tabrani. "The Prophet said: 'when you fast, cleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him who fasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day of judgment.'"

If a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast, he must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion is based on a sentence in the Quran, which has caused a good deal of dispute: "As for those who are able (_to keep it and yet break it_), the expiation of this shall be the maintenance of a poor man." (Sura ii. 180). This seems to make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admit that at first it was so, but they say that the words have been abrogated[224] by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse: "As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast."

Others say that the negative particle "not" must be understood before "able," in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explain the expression "those who are able" as equivalent to "those who have great difficulty therein," such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be the best interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on.

In the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children, sick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it is sufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when convenient make a qaza fast. {217} In these cases the sadqa or feeding of the poor is not required. Thus Abu Daud says: "The Prophet said, 'G.o.d allows travellers to shorten the Namaz and to postpone the fast. Women also are allowed to fast another time.'" The Quran is also clear on the point: "He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days."

(Sura ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to fast. These are, 'id-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'id and the three following days, _viz_: the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazan, a person arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keep the fast during the remaining days of the month.

To take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of Ramazan, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhari, Muslim and Tirmizi, all agree that the Prophet said: "Eat Sahra because there is a blessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of the Book (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra."

The meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftar, or the breaking of the fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruit is not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as the fruit with which the fast should be broken.

The distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast during the day only. The rich cla.s.ses by turning day into night avoid much of its rigour.

They, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must be done in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalman world is strongly against a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast of Ramazan. In this matter it may be said

"Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher, Ce n'est que l'eclat qui fait le crime."

Those who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast very difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must not swallow any liquid; yet as {218} a rule the lower cla.s.ses observe it strictly.[225] In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. In such circ.u.mstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then the Iftar can be commenced. The month of Ramazan brings with it other duties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter.

4. ZAKaT.--There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first is Zakat (literally, "purification") or the legal alms due, with certain exceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the feast day known as 'id-ul-Fitr, or alms in general.[226] It is the first of these that has now to be considered.

On the authority of the Quran and the Ijma'-i-Ummat it is declared to be a farz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, to give the Zakat on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficient for his subsistence and is a Sahib-i-Nisab, or one who possesses an income equivalent to about 5 per annum. The Quran says: "Observe prayer (Salat) and the legal impost (Zakat)." (Sura ii. 40). The Khalif 'Umr Ibn 'Abd-ul-'Aziz used to say: "Prayer carries us half way to G.o.d, fasting brings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission." The three conditions without which Zakat would not be compulsory are Islam, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisab (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakat is said to be a fundamental part of 'Ibadat (worship), and that, as the Infidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do with Zakat. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no {219} property. Nisab is required, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisab is required for daily use the zakat is not taken from it; such as a slave retained for personal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household furniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one Tradition records that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another given on the authority of Bukhari states that for slaves employed in domestic service only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227] should be given. If a person owes a debt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his property and the Zakat given on the balance. If it is a debt due to G.o.d, such as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the neglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the property on which Zakat is due.

The amount of gold which const.i.tutes a Nisab is 20 miskats, or of silver 200 dirhems (=5 4s.). Whether these metals are in coin or not, one-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments are exempt, but Imam Shafa'i does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Daud the following Tradition: "A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy golden bracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakat had been given for them. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for G.o.d in the day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' The girl then took them off and said: 'These are for the service of G.o.d and of His Prophet.'" On all treasure known as rikaz, that is, buried treasure found by any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the value must be paid, whether the land be Khariji, rented at its proper market value; or 'Ushari possessed by the payment of a t.i.the. If the rikaz is found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the whole belongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed {220} land he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of a Musalman Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and return them to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after having given one-fifth as Zakat, he may retain four-fifths for himself.

Pearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the Prophet said: "There is no Zakat for stones."

As regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep and goats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must give one for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every hundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep.

For camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep or goat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel (bint-i-mukhaz); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel (bint-i-labun); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah); from 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, two bint-i-labun; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either a bint-i-labun for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses follow this scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead.

For 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, a two-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every ten cows.

Donkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: "No order has come down (from heaven) to me about them."

If a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisab (5 4s.), Zakat must be given on it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half per cent. The Hanifites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Shafa'ites count such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakat to be paid on it.

Honey, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camel {221} loads,[228]

must according to Imam Abu Hanifa pay one-tenth; but the Sahibain and Imam Shafa'i say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakat is required. The Prophet said: "If produced on land naturally watered one-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth." As he said nothing about the quant.i.ty, the Hanifites adduce the fact of the omission as a proof on their side.

The Zakat should be given to the cla.s.ses of person mentioned in the following verse. "Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to those who collect them, _and to those whose hearts are won to Islam_, and for ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of G.o.d, and for the wayfarer." (Sura ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the Tafsir-i-Husaini, are now cancelled (mansukh). The reference is to the Arab Chiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A.H. 8).

This victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Sura. "G.o.d hath helped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein." Abu Bakr abolished this giving of Zakat to converts, and the Khalif Omar said to these or similar persons: "This Zakat was given to incline your hearts toward Islam. Now G.o.d has prospered Islam. If you be converted it is well; if not, a sword is between us." No Companion has denied this statement, and so the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the Ijma'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy motives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that a reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the ground of the triumphant nature of Islam which now needs no such support.

Contemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the change.

In addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakat may be given to a.s.sist a Mukatib, or slave {222} who is working in order to purchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihad or to make the Hajj must be a.s.sisted.