Suffering, if great, will from the first have caused screams or groans to be uttered, the body to be contorted, and the teeth to be ground together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expressive movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their circulatory and respiratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The shedding of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeb.a.l.l.s becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming. Therefore weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth, until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently human.

Rage will have been expressed at a very early period by threatening or frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and there consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems probable that this shading action would not have become habitual until man had a.s.sumed a completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the children of existing savage races.

Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and upright att.i.tude of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the ant.i.thetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been exhibited by a widely opened mouth; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched.

Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting,--that is, if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of voluntarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquired until a much later period.

Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human; yet it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and afterwards to have been extended by the power of a.s.sociation to self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one s.e.x take in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite s.e.x. But it does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal appearance. Therefore we may conclude that blushing originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent.

From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this volume, it follows that, if the structure of our organs of respiration and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which they now exist, most of our expressions would have been wonderfully different. A very slight change in the course of the arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood from acc.u.mulating in our eyeb.a.l.l.s during violent expiration; for this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this case we should not have displayed some of our most characteristic expressions. If man had breathed water by the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is hardly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth and nostrils, his features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or limbs. Rage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which fight with their teeth; and we may infer that our early progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously enraged.

The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare.

They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her infant; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in others by their expression; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our pleasures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of expression give vividness and energy to our spoken words.

They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago remarked,[1404] on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles, according to their dispositions; the development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being thus rendered deeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions.[1405] He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in a greater degree; and he who remains pa.s.sive when overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between almost all the emotions and their outward manifestations; and partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says:--

Is it not monstrous that this player here, But in a fiction, in a dream of pa.s.sion, Could force his soul so to his own conceit, That, from her working, all his visage wann'd; Tears in his eyes, distraction in 's aspect, A broken voice, and his whole function suiting With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!

_Hamlet_, act ii. sc. 2.

We have seen that the study of the theory of expression confirms to a certain limited extent the conclusion that man is derived from some lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub-specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as possible, the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it has already received from several excellent observers, and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able physiologist.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 1: J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the 'Philosophical Transactions' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression.]

[Footnote 2: Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres des Pa.s.sions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of the 'Conferences' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257.]

[Footnote 3: 'Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de representer les diverses pa.s.sions,' &c. 1792. 1844]

[Footnote 4: I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views.]

[Footnote 5: 'De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101.]

[Footnote 6: 'L'Art de connaitre les Hommes,' &c., par G. Lavater.]

[Footnote 7: 'Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschen.' Band I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858.]

[Footnote 8: 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855.

See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the 'Emotions and Will.']

[Footnote 9: 'The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121.]

[Footnote 10: 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value.]

[Footnote 11: Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr.

Spencer has written another, on "Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the 'Fortnightly Review,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit. of the 'Principles of Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be accused of trespa.s.sing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my 'Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of the present volume: my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the year 1838.]

[Footnote 12: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131.]

[Footnote 13: Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in 'Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342.]

[Footnote 14: 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138.]

[Footnote 15: 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73.]

[Footnote 16: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31.]

[Footnote 17: 'Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p.

934.]

[Footnote 18: 'Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198.]

[Footnote 19: See remarks to this effect in Lessing's 'Lacooon,'

translated by W. Ross, 1836, p. 19.]

[Footnote 20: Mr. Partridge in Todd's 'Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227.]

[Footnote 21: 'La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, tom. iv. 1820, p. 274.

On the number of the facial muscles, see vol. iv. pp. 209-211.]

[Footnote 22: 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91.]

[Footnote 101: Mr. Herbert Spencer ('Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p.

138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the latter being "generated in our corporeal framework." He cla.s.ses as Feelings both emotions and-sensations.]

[Footnote 102: Muller, 'Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii.

p. 939. See also Mr. H. Spencer's interesting speculations on the same subject, and on the genesis of nerves, in his 'Principles of Biology,'

vol. ii. p. 346; and in his 'Principles of Psychology,' 2nd edit. pp.

511-557.]

[Footnote 103: A remark to much the same effect was made long ago by Hippocrates and by the ill.u.s.trious Harvey; for both a.s.sert that a young animal forgets in the course of a few days the art of sucking, and cannot without some difficulty again acquire it. I give these a.s.sertions on the authority of Dr. Darwin, 'Zoonomia,' 1794, vol. i. p. 140.]

[Footnote 104: See for my authorities, and for various a.n.a.logous facts, 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' 1868, vol.

ii. p. 304.]

[Footnote 105: 'The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, p. 332.

Prof. Huxley remarks ('Elementary Lessons in Physiology,' 5th edit.

1872, p. 306), "It may be laid down as a rule, that, if any two mental states be called up together, or in succession, with due frequency and vividness, the subsequent production of the one of them will suffice to call up the other, and that whether we desire it or not."]

[Footnote 106: Gratiolet ('De la Physionomie,' p. 324), in his discussion on this subject, gives many a.n.a.logous instances. See p. 42, on the opening and shutting of the eyes. Engel is quoted (p. 323) on the changed paces of a man, as his thoughts change.]

[Footnote 107: 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 1862, p. 17.]

[Footnote 108: 'The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,' vol. ii. p. 6. The inheritance of habitual gestures is so important for us, that I gladly avail myself of Mr. F. Galton's permission to give in his own words the following remarkable case:--"The following account of a habit occurring in individuals of three consecutive generations {footnote continues:} is of peculiar interest, because it occurs only during sound sleep, and therefore cannot be due to imitation, but must be altogether natural. The particulars are perfectly trustworthy, for I have enquired fully into them, and speak from abundant and independent evidence. A gentleman of considerable position was found by his wife to have the curious trick, when he lay fast asleep on his back in bed, of raising his right arm slowly in front of his face, up to his forehead, and then dropping it with a jerk, so that the wrist fell heavily on the bridge of his nose. The trick did not occur every night, but occasionally, and was independent of any ascertained cause. Sometimes it was repeated incessantly for an hour or more. The gentleman's nose was prominent, and its bridge often became sore from the blows which it received. At one time an awkward sore was produced, that was long in healing, on account of the recurrence, night after night, of the blows which first caused it. His wife had to remove the b.u.t.ton from the wrist of his night-gown as it made severe scratches, and some means were attempted of tying his arm.