A well-shaped foot has been considered from the earliest times one of Nature's kindest gifts, and sober history and fairy lore have combined to give us many interesting particulars respecting this portion of the human anatomy. The similarity of the foot-gear of both s.e.xes makes it impossible to treat the matter separately, and as the subject is practically inexhaustible, I propose only to ill.u.s.trate the most curious and notable examples.

One of the finest collection of shoes in the world is that at the Cluny Museum, Paris, formed by the eminent French engraver, the late Jules Jacquemart. This was enlarged by the purchase of the collection of Baron Schvitter. The Queen of Italy has also acquired a large number of historical boots and shoes; and to Mr. Joseph Box, another enthusiastic collector, I am indebted for some of the drawings used for ill.u.s.trating this article.

A quaint story is told in a rare book, ent.i.tled "The Delightful, Princely, and Entertaining History of the Gentle Craft of Crispin, the Patron Saint of Shoe Makers, and his Brother Crispia.n.u.s." According to this authority, they were the two sons of the King of Logia (Kent), and lived in the city of Durovenum, otherwise Canterbury, or the Court of the Kentish men. Having embraced Christianity, during the Roman invasion, they were in considerable danger, and at their mother's instigation, to conceal their ident.i.ty, adopted humble attire, and devoted themselves to the modest craft of shoemaking, under the auspices of a shoemaker at Faversham, to whom they bound themselves for seven years. This industrious citizen appears to have received the appointment of shoemaker to the Court of Maximinus, whose daughter Ursula fell in love with Crispin. After removing the usual obstacles (which, even in those remote times, seem to have obstructed the paths of those who had fallen under the sway of Cupid), this energetic lady engaged the services of a neighbouring friar, and cut the gordian knot by marrying her faithful adorer.

When primitive man first conceived the idea of producing some contrivance to defend himself from cold, sharp stones, or the heated sand of the desert, his first effort was to fasten to the bottom of his feet soles of bark, wood, or raw hide, which were followed, in due course, by more elaborately made sandals of tanned leather. These were fastened in various ways, but generally by two leathern straps, one round the instep, while the other pa.s.sed between the first and second toes. Egyptian sandals were sometimes prolonged to a sharp point, and occasionally were made of papyrus, or some flexible material; but the commoner kinds were, as a rule, of wood or leather. Often they had painted upon them the effigy of the wearer's enemy, who was thus literally trodden underfoot. Owing to their proximity, the habits and customs of the Egyptians and Jews were in many respects similar. The same Hebrew word denotes both a sandal and a shoe; and it has been concluded that shoes were probably confined to the upper cla.s.ses, while sandals were used by those compelled to work; and slaves went barefoot.

It will be seen from the sketches of Grecian and Roman shoes that they eventually became an elaborate article of dress, bound to the foot and leg with lacings, and ornamented in different ways. The senators had boots of black leather, with a crest of gold or silver on the top of the foot; and soldiers wore iron shoes, heavily spiked, in a similar manner to those now used for cricket, so as to give the wearers a better hold when scaling walls in the attack of fortified places. An iron boot was also used for torturing Christians. As an instance of the luxury so characteristic of the age, it is stated that Roman soldiers often had the spikes on their shoes made of gold. According to the testimony of Seneca, Julius Caesar wore shoes of the precious metal, a fashion emulated by Cardinal Wolsey many centuries after; and Severus was fond of covering his with jewels, to attract the attention of the people as he walked through the streets. The Emperor Aurelian forbade men to wear red, yellow, white, or green shoes, reserving these colours for women; and different shapes were prescribed by legal enactments to be worn for the easy distinguishment of various trades and professions. In the reign of Domitian, the stalls of shoemakers in the public streets were so numerous as to necessitate an edict for their removal.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FOOT-GEAR OF DIFFERENT PERIODS.]

Our own ancestors, the Anglo-Saxons, wore shoes of raw cow-hide, reaching to the ankles; and the hair turned outward. Those used by ecclesiastics were a kind of sandal fastened with bands of leather round the instep. The Norman half-boots had soles of wood, while the uppers were of a more pliable material. Those worn by the Crusaders were of chain, and later of plate armour. Very pointed toes were in fashion during the Middle Ages, and these were carried to such a ridiculous length that the dignitaries of the Church considered it necessary to preach against the practice. However, this did not result in its abolition, for we find the courtiers of the day improved upon the prevailing mode by stuffing their shoes, and twisting them into the shape of a ram's horn; the point of which was attached to the knee by a chain. The common people were permitted by law to wear "the pykes on their shoon" half-a-foot, rich citizens a foot, while n.o.bles and princes had theirs two-and-a-half feet long.

During the Plantagenet period it was usual to wear two shoes of different colours, and they were often slashed on the upper surface, to show the bright hose beneath. These were superseded by a large, padded shoe, gored over the foot with coloured material, a fashion imported from Italy, and exaggerated as much as the pointed shoe had been.

Buskins were high boots, made of splendid tissue, and worn by the n.o.bility and gentry during the Middle Ages, generally on occasions of State. They were also largely adopted by players of tragedy. They covered the knee, and were tied just below. The sock, or low shoe, on the other hand, was the emblem of comedy.

One of the greatest follies ever introduced was the chopine, a sort of stilt which increased the height of the wearer. These were first used in Persia, but appeared in Venice about the Sixteenth Century, and their use was encouraged by jealous husbands in the hope of keeping their wives at home. This desire, however, was not realised, as the ladies went out as usual, and required rather more support than hitherto.

Chopines were very ornate, and the length determined the rank of the wearer, the n.o.blest dames having them half-a-yard high. Shakespeare refers to them when he makes Hamlet say:--"Your ladyship is nearer heaven than when I saw you last by the alt.i.tude of a chopine." He also alludes to the general use of shoes for the left and right foot, when he speaks of a man:---

"Standing in slippers which his nimble haste Had falsely thrust upon contrary feet."

[Ill.u.s.tration: GREEK AND ROMAN SHOES.]

The exercise of the gentle craft of shoemaking was for a long time carried on in monastic inst.i.tutions, and increased the revenues of the clergy. Richard, the first Abbot of St. Albans, objected to canons and priests of his era a.s.sociating themselves with tanners and shoemakers, not one of whom, in his opinion, ought to be made a bishop or an abbot.

It is said, however, that Pope John, elected in 1316, was the son of a shoemaker at Cahors; and in the description of Absalom, the Parish Clerk, Chaucer tells us, "the upper leathers of his shoes were carved to resemble the windows of St. Paul's Cathedral," which inclines one to believe in their priestly origin.

[Ill.u.s.tration: ANGLO-SAXON AND NORMAN SHOES.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: MEDIaeVAL SHOES.]

From various sources, we have descriptions of royal shoes. Richard C[oe]ur de Lion had his boots striped with gold; those of his brother John were spotted with gold in circles. Henry III. had his boots chequered with golden lines, and every square enriched with a lion. In the splendid Court of Edward III., the royal shoes were elaborately embroidered. The coronation shoes of Richard III. were covered with crimson tissue cloth of gold. Henry VIII. is described as wearing square-toed shoes, which were slashed with coloured silk, and exposed a portion of the foot. Some worn by his daughter, Queen Elizabeth, of brocaded silk, are remarkably clumsy in appearance, and have lappets which fasten over the instep. They form a striking contrast to those used by the unfortunate Mary Queen of Scots (now in the possession of Sir James William Drummond), which are of kid, embroidered with coloured silks; the toes are somewhat squarer, but in other respects resemble those in fashion at the present day.

[Ill.u.s.tration: QUEEN ELIZABETH'S BOOTS.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: SHOE OF MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: SHOE WORN BY CHARLES I.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: A. CHOPINE; B, BUSKIN; C, PEAKED SHOE; D, TUDOR SHOE.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: MILITARY BOOTS AND SPURS USED AT THE BATTLE OF NASEBY.]

In speaking of curious foot-gear, the under covering of the leg and pedal extremities must be briefly referred to. Ancient works on costume frequently mention hose, socks, and stockings, which were made of woollen cloth, leather, or linen, and held in place by cross-bands of the material twisted to a little below the knee, either in close rolls, like the hay-bands of the modern ostler, or crossing each other sandal-wise, as they are now worn in some districts of Europe, particularly in Russia and Spain. Cloth stockings, embroidered with gold, are among the articles of dress ordered by Henry III. for his sister Isabel; and of a woman mentioned in the "Canterbury Tales," it is said: "Hire hosen weren of fine scarlet redde, ful streite yteyed (tied), and shoon full moist (supple) and newe."

[Ill.u.s.tration: ANCIENT SHOES--A, B, C, D, E, EGYPTIAN; F, PERSIAN; G, H, GREEK; I, J, K, L, PHRYGIAN AND DACIAN.]

In the reign of Henry VII. clocks on stockings are discernible; and the Poet Laureate of this king, describing the dress of the hostess of an inn, gives an indication of how boots were cleaned:

"She hobbles as she goes, With her blanket hose, Her shoone smeared with _tallow_."

It is supposed that hose or stockings of silk were unknown in this country before the middle of the 16th century. A pair of Spanish silk hose was presented by Sir Thomas Gresham to Edward VI., his father never having worn any but those made of cloth. In the reign of good Queen Bess, nether socks or stockings were of silk, jarnsey, worsted crewel, or the finest yarn, thread, or cloth, and were of all colours, "cunningly knit and curiously indented in every point, with querks, clocks, open seams, and everything else accordingly." Planche states, in the third year of Elizabeth, Mistress Montague, the Queen's silk-woman, presented Her Majesty with a pair of black silk knit stockings, made in England; and from that time she wore no others, in the laudable desire to encourage their home manufacture by her own example. The Queen's patronage, and the invention, in 1599, of a weaving frame, by William Lee, Master of Arts, and Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge, gave a great impetus tus to the stocking trade, which has been carried on with considerable success ever since, particularly in the Midland counties of England.

Spurs can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon period, which is quite far enough for this purpose. They had no rowels, but were made with a simple point like a goad, and were fastened with leathers. Early in the 15th century spurs were screwed on to a steel shoe, instead of being fastened with straps. They were long in the neck, and the spikes of the rowels of formidable dimensions. From a sketch of a spur worn at the Battle of Naseby, in the reign of Charles I., it will be seen that, as progress was made in armour and military gear, considerable attention was paid to this portion of the soldier's outfit; indeed, it was more elaborate in design than is now considered necessary. From a very early period spurs have been used by both s.e.xes.

A curious custom was in vogue at the beginning of the present century for ladies to make their own indoor shoes. This fashion was inaugurated by Queen Charlotte, who was particularly deft in handling a beautiful set of shoemaker's tools, mounted in silver, with ivory handles.

Tradesmen bitterly complained that worktables in boudoirs were strewn with the implements of their craft; but, like many other feminine fads, it soon pa.s.sed away. About this period clogs were also used. These were made of wood, and served as a protection to shoes out of doors. A similar contrivance, with the addition of an iron ring, leather strap and toe-cap, is still sometimes worn by farm servants, and is called a patten. Another form of clog, consisting of a laced leather boot with wooden sole, is extensively used by the working cla.s.ses in the North of England, and the sabot, a wooden shoe, is the ordinary foot-gear of peasants on the Continent.

It is well known that Chinese women of high rank deform their feet by compressing them in such a manner that it is afterwards almost impossible to walk; and in Davis' interesting description of the Empire of China, he relates that whenever a judge of unusual integrity resigns his post, the people accompany him from his home to the gates of the city, where his boots are drawn off with great ceremony, and are afterwards preserved in the Hall of Justice.

In j.a.pan a peculiar wooden sandal, having a separate compartment for the great toe, is in common use. Straw slippers are also worn, and a traveller starting on a journey will strap a supply on his back, so that he may have new shoes in case of need. They are lefts and rights, and only cost a halfpenny the pair. Here one never finds those deformities of the feet so common in China, and even in our own country. A graceful carriage depends so much upon the shoes worn. Heavy and stiff ones oblige the wearer to plant the foot solidly at every step. If the toes are very pointed it is at the sacrifice of elasticity, and if the heels are too high the muscles in the ball of the foot are little used.

Orientals indicate reverence by uncovering their feet, and do so on all occasions when Western nations would remove their hats. Their heads, being generally shaven, are always covered, and are surmounted by a head-dress which could not be replaced without considerable trouble; while for the feet they have loose slippers, with a single sole, made of coloured morocco or embroidered silk, which are easily thrown off. Few things inspire them with greater disgust than for anyone to enter their rooms with shoes on. They think such conduct an insult to themselves and a pollution to their apartment; and it is considered the height of irreverence to enter a church, mosque, or a temple without removing them. Even cla.s.sical heathenism affords instances of this usage. The Roman women were obliged to go barefoot in the Temple of Vesta; the same rule existed in that of Diana, at Crete; and those who prayed in the Temple of Jupiter also followed this custom.

In the East, the public removal of the sandal or shoe, and the giving it to another, accompanied by certain words, signifies a transfer of authority or relinquishing possession. We are told in the case of Ruth and Boaz, when her kinsman gave up his right to marry her, in favour of her second husband, "he drew off his shoe." Among the Bedouins, when a man permits his cousin to marry another, or divorces his runaway spouse, he generally says, "She was my slipper; I have cast her off." Again, when shoes are left at the door of an apartment, they denote that the master or mistress is engaged, and even a husband does not venture into a wife's room while he sees the slippers on the threshold. The idea is not altogether unknown among ourselves, as it is expressed in the homely proverb, "to stand in another man's shoes;" or when we speak of coming into a future inheritance as stepping into a "dead man's shoe." Also in flinging the slipper after a departing bride, signifying that the father transfers his authority to the husband.

CHAPTER V.

BRIDAL COSTUME.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MARRIAGE PROCESSION OF A BRIDE IN LEBANON.]

Certain curious customs have been a.s.sociated with the Ordinance of Marriage from a very early period, and among others may be mentioned the union of near relations in barbaric or semi-barbaric tribes; the providing of husbands and wives for a family according to seniority (so that the younger members had to possess their souls in patience till the elder ones were disposed of); the paying of an equivalent for the bride's services to her father in money or kind; and festivities often lasting over several days to celebrate the nuptials. The Rabbins acquaint us with the fact that seven days' feasting was an indispensable obligation on all married men, and that the bride was not consigned to her husband until after the days of feasting had expired. They were generally spent in the house of the woman's father, after which she was conducted in great state to her husband's home. When the bride was a widow, the festivities only lasted for three days. Customs in the East are perpetuated from one generation to another, and we now find among the inhabitants of the Orient the same mode of life as was adopted by the patriarchs of old. The description of the wooing of Isaac and Rebekah, for example, so graphically told in Genesis, differs in few respects from that of a young couple of the same rank in the present day. Handsome presents, consisting of jewels, apparel, &c., are presented to the woman and her family, and form part of her dower in case of divorce. Rich shawls, fine dresses, personal ornaments, money, and a complete outfit of domestic utensils are always included in such a gift. Among some of the Arab tribes the dower received on such occasions, and called the "five articles," consists of a carpet, a silver nose ring, a silver neck chain, silver bracelets, and a camel bag. Matrimonial overtures are generally made by the parents of the contracting parties in Persia, but after all has been concluded, the bride-elect has nominally the power, though it is seldom exercised, of expressing her dissent before the connection receives its final sanction. Among many Bedouin tribes the woman is not suffered to know until the betrothing ceremonies announce it to her who is to be her husband, and then it is too late to negative the contract, but she is permitted to withdraw from her husband's tent the day after her marriage, and to return to her father; in which case she is formally divorced, and is henceforward regarded as a widow. On the value of her ornaments the Eastern bride bases her claim to consideration; and though the Arab, as a rule, cares little for his own dress, he decks his wife as richly as possible, that honour may be reflected upon himself and his circ.u.mstances. The leg ornaments and bracelets are often enormously thick, and have no fastenings, but open and compress by their own elasticity. It is not unusual to wear several on the same arm, reaching to the elbow. They form a woman's sole wealth, and are not treasured up for special occasions, as is usual among Western nations, but are used as part of of the daily costume. Various materials are employed in their manufacture; gold is necessarily rare, silver less so, while others are composed of amber, coral, mother-of-pearl, and beads.

[Ill.u.s.tration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN BRIDAL COSTUME.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FESTIVITIES AT AN EASTERN MARRIAGE.]

We are told, when Rebekah approached her future home and saw a man walking in the distance, she evinced a curiosity, natural under the circ.u.mstances, and inquired about him; and on discovering that it was Isaac, "she took a veil and covered herself." It is still almost universal in the East for a woman, whose face is not concealed on other occasions, to envelop her head and body in an ample veil before she is conducted to her husband, and it is considered an indispensable part of the bridal costume. The details of the home coming are modified by the local usages and religions of the different countries. In Syria, Persia, and India, the bridegroom, in person, brings home the bride; in some other countries this duty devolves on a near relative, and he remains at home to receive the lady on her arrival. From various sources, but particularly from indications in Scripture, we may gather that the Jews employed either of these methods, according to circ.u.mstances. Again, in Egypt the bridegroom goes to the Mosque when his bride is expected, and returns home in procession after she has arrived. In Western Asia the procession usually walks, if the bride's future house is at no great distance in the same town. In such cases she is often partially covered by a canopy, and in Central and Eastern Asia it is the rule for her to be mounted on a mare, mule, a.s.s, or camel, unless she is carried in a palanquin. Much, of course, depends on the social position of those married. Music attends such processions, and often dancing; the Jews certainly had the former, and some think the latter also, at least, in the time of our Saviour.

[Ill.u.s.tration: A GREEK BRIDESMAID.]

In Halhed's translation of the Gentoo Laws, and in Mr. Roberts's "Oriental Ill.u.s.trations," reference is made to the custom of marrying the elder sister first, and the same usage is observed with regard to the brothers. When, in India, the elder daughter happens to be blind, deaf, dumb, or deformed, this formality is dispensed with; and there have been cases when a man, wishing to obtain a younger daughter, has used every means in his power to promote the settlement of his future sister-in-law, so as to forward his own nuptials. Fathers, too, will sometimes exert their powers to compa.s.s the marriage of the elder daughter, when a very advantageous offer is made for the younger one.

It is generally believed that Psalm xlv., commonly known as "The Song of Loves," was composed on the occasion of Solomon's marriage--probably to Pharaoh's daughter; and here we find the Egyptian bride's dress described as "all glorious within and wrought of gold, a raiment of needlework." Both expressions refer to the same dress, and imply that the garment was embroidered with figures worked with threads of gold.

The Egyptians were famous for their embroideries, and some mummies have been found wrapped up in clothing curiously ornamented with gold lace.

At the present day, both in Egypt and Western Asia, it is usual for ladies of the highest rank to employ much of their time in working with the needle linen and cotton tissues in gold and silver thread and silk of different colours.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MODERN GREEK BRIDAL COSTUME.]

The use of nuptial crowns is of great antiquity. Among the Greeks and Romans they wore chaplets of flowers and leaves, and the modern Greeks retain this custom, employing such chaplets, decorated with ribbons and lace. Modern Jews do not use crowns in their marriage ceremonies, and they inform us that they have been discontinued since the last siege of Jerusalem by the Romans. The information which Gemara gives on this subject is briefly that the crown of the bridegroom was of gold and silver, or else a chaplet of roses, myrtle, or olives, and that the bride's crown was of the precious metals. There is also some mention of a crown made of salt and sulphur, worn by the bridegroom, the salt transparent as crystal, the figures being represented thereon in sulphur. Crowns play an important part in the nuptial ceremonies of the Greek Church; they are also still used by Scandinavian brides.

The ring in former days did not occupy the prominent position it does now, but was given, with other presents, to mark the completion of the contract. Its form is a symbol of eternity, and signifies the intention of both parties to keep the solemn covenant of which it is a pledge, or, as the Saxons called it, a "wed," from which we derive the term wedding.

The Jews have a law which proclaims that the nuptial ring shall be of certain value, and must not be obtained by credit or gift. Formerly they were of large size and elaborate workmanship, but now the ordinary plain gold hoop is used.