563. It is well to have two kinds of paper, namely, _driers_ of bibulous paper, st.i.tched into pads (or the pads may be of thick carpet-paper, cut to size) and thin smooth paper, folded once; the specimens to be laid into the fold, either when gathered or on returning from the excursion.

These sheets are to hold the specimens until they are quite dry. Every day, or at first even twice a day, the specimens, left undisturbed in their sheets, are to be shifted into fire-dried or sun-dried fresh driers, and the pressure renewed, while the moist sheets are spread out to dry, so as to take their turn again at the next shifting. This course must be continued until the specimens are no longer moist to the touch.

Good and comely specimens are either made or spoiled within the first twenty-four or thirty-six hours. After that, when plenty of driers are used, it may not be necessary to change them so frequently.

564. Succulent plants, which long refuse to part with life and moisture, and Spruces and some other evergreens which are apt to cast off their leaves, may be plunged for a moment into boiling water, all but the flowers. Delicate flowers may be encased in thin tissue paper when put into the press. Thick parts, like the heads of Sunflowers and Thistles, may be cut in two or into slices.

565. Dried specimens may be packed in bundles, either in folded paper or upon single half-sheets. It is better that such paper should not be bibulous. The packages should be well wrapped or kept in close cases.

566. =Poisoning= is necessary if specimens are to be permanently preserved from the depredation of insects. The usual application is an almost saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in 95 per cent alcohol, freely applied with a large and soft brush, or the specimens dipped into some of the solution poured into a large and flat dish; the wetted specimens to be transferred for a short time to driers.

-- 2. HERBARIUM.

567. The botanist's collection of dried specimens, ticketed with their names, place, and time of collection, and systematically arranged under their genera, orders, etc., forms a _Hortus Siccus_ or _Herbarium_. It comprises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself collected, but those which he acquires through friendly exchanges, or in other ways. The specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheets of paper; or they may be fastened on half-sheets of thick and white paper, either by gummed slips, or by glue applied to the specimens themselves. The former is best for private and small herbaria; the latter for large ones which are much turned over. Each sheet should be appropriated to one species; two or more different plants should never be attached to the same sheet. The generic and specific name of the plant should be added to the lower right-hand corner, either written on the sheet, or on a ticket pasted down; and the time of collection, the locality, the color of the flowers, and any other information which the specimens themselves do not afford, should be duly recorded upon the sheet or the ticket. The sheets of the herbarium should all be of exactly the same dimensions. The herbarium of Linnaeus is on paper of the common foolscap size, about eleven inches long and seven wide. This is too small. Sixteen and three eighths inches by eleven and a half inches is an approved size.

568. The sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed in _genus-covers_, made of a full sheet of thick paper (such as the strongest Manilla-hemp paper), to be when folded of the same dimensions as the species-sheet but slightly wider: the name of the genus is to be written on one of the lower corners. These are to be arranged under the orders to which they belong, and the whole kept in closed cases or cabinets, either laid flat in compartments, like "pigeon-holes," or else placed in thick portfolios, arranged like folio volumes. All should be kept, as much as practicable, in dust-proof and insect-proof cases or boxes.

569. Fruits, tubers, and other hard parts, too thick for the herbarium, may be kept in pasteboard or light wooden boxes, in a collection apart.

Small loose fruits, seeds, detached flowers, and the like may be conveniently preserved in paper capsules or envelopes, attached to the herbarium-sheets.

-- 3. INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION OF PLANTS.

570. =The Implements= required are a hand magnifying gla.s.s, a pocket lens of an inch or two focus, or a gla.s.s of two lenses, one of the lower and the other of the higher power; and a sharp penknife for dissection.

With these and reasonable perseverance the structure of the flowers and fructification of most phanerogamous plants and Ferns can be made out.

But for ease and comfort, as well as for certainty and right training, the student should have some kind of simple stage microscope, and under this make all dissections of small parts. Without it the student will be apt to fall into the bad habit of guessing where he ought to ascertain.

571. The simple microscope may be reduced to a good lens or doublet, of an inch focus, mounted over a gla.s.s stage, so that it can be moved up and down and also sidewise, and with (or without) a little mirror underneath. A better one would have one or two additional lenses (say of half and of a quarter inch focus), a pretty large stage, on the gla.s.s of which several small objects can be placed and conveniently brought under the lens; and its height or that of the lens should be adjustable by a rack-work; also a swivel-mounted little mirror beneath, which is needed for minute objects to be viewed by transmitted light.

572. For dissecting and displaying small parts on the stage of the microscope, besides a thin-bladed knife, the only tools needed are a good stock of common needles of various sizes, mounted in handles, and one or more saddler's-needles, which, being triangular, may be ground to sharp edges convenient for dissection. Also a pair of delicate-pointed forceps; those with curved points used by the dentist are most convenient. A cup of clean water is indispensable, with which to moisten or wet, or in which occasionally to float delicate parts. Small flowers, buds, fruits, and seeds of dried specimens can be dissected quite as well as fresh ones. They have only to be soaked in warm or boiling water.

573. The compound microscope is rarely necessary except in cryptogamic botany and vegetable anatomy; but it is very useful and convenient, especially for the examination of pollen. To the advanced botanist it is a necessity, to all students of botany an aid and delight.

574. =a.n.a.lysis.= A few directions and hints may be given. The most important is this: In studying an unknown plant, make a complete examination of all its parts, and form a clear idea of its floral structure and that of its fruit, from pericarp down to the embryo, or as far as the materials in hand allow, before taking a step toward finding out its name and relationship by means of the keys or other helps which the Manuals and Floras provide. If it is the name merely that is wanted, the shorter way is to ask some one who already knows it. To verify the points of structure one by one as they happen to occur in an artificial key, without any preparatory investigation, is a usual but is not the best nor the surest way. It is well to make drawings or outline sketches of the smaller parts, and especially diagrams of the plan of the flower, such as those of Fig. 225, 227, 241, 244, 275-277. For these, cross sections of the flower-bud or flower are to be made: and longitudinal sections, such as Fig. 270-274, are equally important. The dissection even of small seeds is not difficult after some practice.

Commonly they need to be soaked or boiled.

575. The right appreciation of characters and terms used in description needs practice and calls for judgment. Plants do not grow exactly by rule and plummet, and measurements must be taken loosely. Difference of soil and situation are responded to by considerable variations, and other divergences occur which cannot be accounted for by the surroundings, nor be antic.i.p.ated in general descriptions. Annuals may be very depauperate in dry soils or seasons, or very large when particularly well nourished. Warm and arid situations promote, and wet ones are apt to diminish p.u.b.escence. Salt water causes increased succulence. The color of flowers is apt to be lighter in shade, and brighter in open and elevated situations. A color or hue not normal to the species now and then occurs, which nothing in the conditions will account for. _A white-flowered variation of any other colored blossom may always be expected_; this, though it may be notable, no more indicates a distinct variety of the species than an albino would a variety of the human species. The numerical plan is subject to variation in some flowers; those on the plan of five may now and then vary to four or to six. Variations of the outline or lobing of leaves are so familiar that they do not much mislead. Only wider and longer observation suffices to prevent or correct mistakes in botanical study. But the weighing of evidence and the balancing of probabilities, no less than the use of the well-ordered and logical system of cla.s.sification, give as excellent training to the judgment as the search for the facts themselves does to the observing powers.

-- 4. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.

576. For a full account of these, whether of former or actual use, see "Structural Botany" of the "Botanical Text Book," pp. 367, 392, as also for the principles which govern the accentuation of names. It is needful here to explain only those used in the Manuals and Floras of this country, for which the present volume is an introduction and companion.

They are not numerous.

577. In arranging the species, at least those of a large genus, the divisions are denoted and graduated as follows: The sign -- is prefixed to sections of the highest rank: these sections when they have names affixed to them (as Prunus -- Cerasus) may be called subgenera. When the divisions of a genus are not of such importance, or when divisions are made under the subgenus itself, the most comprehensive ones are marked by asterisks, * for the first, * * for the second, and so on.

Subdivisions are marked with a prefixed +; those under this head with ++; and those under this with =, if there be so many grades. A similar notation is followed in the synopsis of the genera of an order.

578. The interrogation point is used in botany to indicate doubt. Thus _Clematis crispa_, L.? expresses a doubt whether the plant in question is really the _Clematis crispa_ of Linnaeus. _Clematis? polypetala_ expresses a doubt whether the plant so named is really a Clematis. On the other hand the exclamation point (!) is used to denote certainty whenever there is special need to affirm this.

579. For size or height, the common signs of degrees, minutes, and seconds, have been used, thus, 1, 2', 3", stand respectively for a foot, two inches, and three lines or twelfths of an inch. A better way, when such brevity is needed, is to write 1^{ft}. 2^{in}. 3^{l}.

580. Signs for duration used by Linnaeus were ? for an annual, ? for a biennial, ? for a perennial herb, [Symbol like numeral 5 without the top bar] for a shrub or tree. DeCandolle brought in ? for a plant that died after once flowering, ? if annual, ? if biennial.

581. To indicate s.e.xes, ? means staminate or male plant or blossom; ?, pistillate or female; [Symbol like ?, but with two inverted breve accents over it], perfect or hermaphrodite.

582. To save room it is not uncommon to use 8 in place of "many;" thus, "Stamens 8," for stamens indefinitely numerous: "8 flora" for pluriflora or many-flowered. Still more common is the form "Stamens 5-20," or "Calyx 4-5-parted," for stamens from five to twenty, calyx four-parted or five-parted, and the like. Such abbreviations hardly need explanation.

583. The same may be said of such abbreviations as _Cal._ for calyx, _Cor._ for corolla, _Pet._ for petals, _St._ for stamens, _Pist._ for pistil, _Hab._ for habitat, meaning place of growth, _Herb._ for herbarium, _Hort._ for garden. Also _l. c._, loco citato, which avoids repet.i.tion of volume and page.

584. "Structural Botany" has six pages of abbreviations of the names of botanists, mostly of botanical authors. As they are not of much consequence to the beginner, while the more advanced botanist will know the names in full, or know where to find them, only a selection is here appended.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For fuller directions in many particulars, see "Structural Botany,"

pp. 370-374.