CHAPTER I.

FORMATION AND CHARACTER OF THE SOIL.

[What is a necessary condition of growth?]

In the foregoing section, we have studied the character of plants and the laws which govern their growth. We learned that one necessary condition for growth is a fertile soil, and therefore we will examine the nature of different soils, in order that we may understand the relations between them and plants.

[What is a fixed character of soils?

How is the chemical character of the soil to be ascertained?

What do we first learn in a.n.a.lyzing a soil?

How do the proportions of organic or inorganic parts of soils compare with those of plants?

Of what does the organic part of soils consist?]

The soil is not to be regarded as a mysterious ma.s.s of dirt, whereon crops are produced by a mysterious process. Well ascertained scientific knowledge has proved beyond question that all soils, whether in America or Asia, whether in Maine or California, have certain fixed properties, which render them fertile or barren, and the science of agriculture is able to point out these characteristics in all cases, so that we can ascertain from a scientific investigation what would be the chances for success in cultivating any soil which we examine.

The soil is a great chemical compound, and its chemical character is ascertained (as in the case of plants) by a.n.a.lyzing it, or taking it apart.

We first learn that fertile soils contain both organic and inorganic matter; but, unlike the plant, they usually possess much more of the latter than of the former.

In the plant, the organic matter const.i.tutes the most considerable portion of the whole. In the soil, on the contrary, it usually exists in very small quant.i.ties, while the inorganic portions const.i.tute nearly the whole bulk.

[Can the required proportion be definitely indicated?

From what source is the inorganic part of soils derived?

Do all soils decompose with equal facility?

How does frost affect rocks?

Does it affect soils in the same way?]

The organic part of soils consists of the same materials that const.i.tute the organic part of the plants, and it is in reality decayed vegetable and animal matter. It is not necessary that this organic part of the soil should form any particular proportion of the whole, and indeed we find it varying from one and a half to fifty, and sometimes, in peaty soils, to over seventy per cent. All fertile soils contain some organic matter, although it seems to make but little difference in fertility, whether it be ten or fifty per cent.

The inorganic part of soils is derived from the crumbling of rocks. Some rocks (such as the slates in Central New York) decompose, and crumble rapidly on being exposed to the weather; while granite, marble, and other rocks will last for a long time without perceptible change. The _causes_ of this crumbling are various, and are not unimportant to the agriculturist; as by the same processes by which his soil was formed, he can increase its depth, or otherwise improve it. This being the case, we will in a few words explain some of the princ.i.p.al pulverizing agents.

1. The action of frost. When water lodges in the crevices of rocks, and _freezes_, it expands, and bursts the rock, on the same principle as causes it to break a pitcher in winter. This power is very great, and by its a.s.sistance, large cannon may be burst. Of course the action of frost is the same on a small scale as when applied to large ma.s.ses of matter, and, therefore, we find that when water freezes in the _pores_[M] of rocks or stones, it separates their particles and causes them to crumble. The same rule holds true with regard to stiff clay soils. If they are _ridged_ in autumn, and left with a rough surface exposed to the frosts of winter, they will become much lighter, and can afterwards be worked with less difficulty.

[What is the effect of water on certain rocks?

How are some rocks affected by exposure to the atmosphere? Give an instance of this.]

2. The action of water. Many kinds of rock become so soft on being soaked with water, that they readily crumble.

3. The chemical changes of the const.i.tuents of the rock. Many kinds of rock are affected by exposure to the atmosphere, in such a manner, that changes take place in their chemical character, and cause them to fall to pieces. The red kellis of New Jersey (a species of sandstone), is, when first quarried, a very hard stone, but on exposure to the influences of the atmosphere, it becomes so soft that it may be easily crushed between the thumb and finger.

[What is the similarity between the composition of soils and the rocks from which they were formed?

What does feldspar rock yield? Talcose slate? Marls?

Does a soil formed entirely from rock contain organic matter?

How is it affected by the growth of plants?]

Other actions, of a less simple kind, exert an influence on the stubbornness of rocks, and cause them to be resolved into soils.[N] Of course, the composition of the soil must be similar to that of the rock from which it was formed; and, consequently, if we know the chemical character of the rock, we can tell whether the soil formed from it can be brought under profitable cultivation. Thus feldspar, on being pulverized, yields potash; talcose slate yields magnesia; marls yield lime, etc.

The soil formed entirely from rock, contains, of course, no organic matter.[O] Still it is capable of bearing plants of a certain cla.s.s, and when these die, they are deposited in the soil, and thus form its organic portions, rendering it capable of supporting those plants which furnish food for animals. Thousands of years must have been occupied in preparing the earth for habitation by man.

As the inorganic or mineral part of the soil is usually the largest, we will consider it first.

As we have stated that this portion is formed from rocks, we will examine their character, with a view to showing the different qualities of soils.

[What is the general rule concerning the composition of rocks?

Do these distinctions affect the fertility of soils formed from them?

What do we mean by the mechanical character of the soil?

Is its fertility indicated by its mechanical character?]

As a general rule, it may be stated that _all rocks are either sandstones, limestones, or clays; or a mixture of two or more of these ingredients_. Hence we find that all mineral soils are either _sandy_, _calcareous_, (limey), or _clayey_; or consist of a mixture of these, in which one or another usually predominates. Thus, we speak of a sandy soil, a clay soil, etc. These distinctions (sandy, clayey, loamy, etc.) are important in considering the _mechanical_ character of the soil, but have little reference to its fertility.

By _mechanical_ character, we mean those qualities which affect the ease of cultivation--excess or deficiency of water, ability to withstand drought, etc. For instance, a heavy clay soil is difficult to plow--retains water after rains, and bakes quite hard during drought; while a light sandy soil is plowed with ease, often allows water to pa.s.s through immediately after rains, and becomes dry and powdery during drought. Notwithstanding those differences in their mechanical character, both soils may be very fertile, or one more so than the other, without reference to the clay and sand which they contain, and which, to _our observation_, form their leading characteristics. The same facts exist with regard to a loam, a calcareous (or limey) soil, or a vegetable mould. Their mechanical texture is not essentially an index to their fertility, nor to the manures required to enable them to furnish food to plants. It is true, that each kind of soil appears to have some general quality of fertility or barrenness which is well known to practical men, yet this is not founded on the fact that the clay or the sand, or the vegetable matter, enter more largely into the const.i.tution of plants than they do when they are not present in so great quant.i.ties, but on certain other facts which will be hereafter explained.

[What is a sandy soil? A clay soil? A loamy soil? A marl? A calcareous soil? A peaty soil?]

As the following names are used to denote the character of soils, in ordinary agricultural description, we will briefly explain their application:

A _Sandy soil_ is, of course, one in which sand largely predominates.

_Clay soil_, one where _clay_ forms a large proportion of the soil.

_Loamy soil_, where sand and clay are about equally mixed.

_Marl_ contains from five to twenty per cent. of carbonate of lime.

_Calcareous soil_ more than twenty per cent.

_Peaty soils_, of course, contain large quant.i.ties of organic matter.[P]

[How large a part of the soil may be used as food by plants?

What do we learn from the a.n.a.lyses of barren and fertile soils?]