_Second Experiment._

Common phosphorus is perfectly and rapidly dissolved by bisulphide of carbon. The solution must be carefully preserved, as it is a liquid combustible, which takes fire spontaneously after the bisulphide of carbon evaporates; so that wherever it is dropped, a flame, arising from the spontaneous combustion of the finely-divided phosphorus, is sure to be produced. This liquid was recommended many years ago to the Government for the purpose of setting sails of ships or other combustible matter on fire. The solution of phosphorus alone did not answer the purpose, as already explained in the first experiment; but when wax was dissolved with the phosphorus, it then became a most dangerous fluid, which it was recommended should be used in sh.e.l.ls, and discharged from a mortar or howitzer in the ordinary manner. Dr. Lyon Playfair was the first to make this proposed application of the solution, and it has since, we believe, been recommended by Captain Norton in his liquid-fire sh.e.l.ls.

_Third Experiment._

One of the most curious facts in connexion with phosphorus, is its a.s.sumption of the allotropic state in what is termed _amorphous_ (shapeless) or red phosphorus. This substance, when handled for the first time, might be mistaken for a lump of badly-made Venetian red.

There is no risk of its taking fire like the common phosphorus, and it does not (according to Schrotter, of Berlin, who discovered this peculiar condition) exhale those fumes which are so prejudicial to the lucifer-match makers. When the vapour of common phosphorus is continually inhaled, it is said to cause a peculiar and disgusting disease, which terminates in the destruction of the jaw-bone; whilst the bones in other parts of the body become brittle, and arm-bones thus affected are fractured with the slightest blow.

The difference between common and red phosphorus is well shown first, [Page 168] by placing a few small pieces of both kinds in separate bottles or vials containing bisulphide of carbon; the common phosphorus, as already explained, quickly dissolves in the liquid, and if poured on a sheet of paper, and hung up, is soon on fire; whilst the red variety is wholly unaffected, and if the bisulphide of carbon is poured off on to paper, it merely evaporates, and no combustion occurs.

The similarity in composition, though not in outward form, is further shown by filling two jars with oxygen gas, and having provided two deflagrating spoons, some common phosphorus is placed in one, and red phosphorus in the other; a wire, gently heated by dipping it into some boiling water, is now applied to the former, which immediately takes fire, and may be plunged into the jar of oxygen gas, when it burns with the usual brilliancy. The red phosphorus, however, must be brought to a much higher temperature (500 Fah.) before it will even shine in the dark, and then with a still further increase of heat it takes fire, and on being placed in the other jar of oxygen burns up much more slowly than the yellow phosphorus, but at last exhibits that brilliant flash of light which is so characteristic of the combustion of phosphorus in oxygen.

The amorphous or red phosphorus is employed in the manufacture of _safety chemical matches_, and M. A. Meunons has secured a patent in England for an improvement in lucifer matches, with a view to obviate the risks of accidental ignition. To attain this end the matches are first cut by a machine from cubes of wood, the cut being stopped at a short distance from the end of each cube, so as to leave the lower extremities adherent. The upper or free extremity of each packet of splints thus formed being coated with wax or sulphur, is dipped in one of the following preparations:--Chlorate of potash, two parts; pulverized charcoal, one part; umber, one part; or, chlorate of potash, sulphur, and umber, in equal parts, thoroughly mixed with glue. The opposite extremity or "cut" of each packet is then painted over with amorphous phosphorus blended with size, so that on separating the matches the phosphorus is only found on the top of each. The matches thus prepared are ignited by breaking off a small piece of the phosphorised end and rubbing it on the opposite extremity covered with the inflammable preparation.

Loud exploding and dangerous lucifers were formerly made by dipping bundles of matches, previously coated with sulphur at the tips, into a thick solution of gum, at a temperature of 104 Fahr., coloured with smalt or red lead, in which was dissolved a certain proportion of chlorate of potash, and also containing finely divided particles of phosphorus obtained by the constant stirring and rubbing of the materials in a mortar. When dry the matches exploded if rubbed against a gritty surface, and there was always a risk of a fragment flying off and entering the eye. To obviate this danger, _silent_ or _noiseless lucifer matches_ were invented, and the composition used (according to Bottger) is as follows:--Gum arabic, 16 parts by weight; phosphorus, 9 parts; nitre, 14 parts; powdered black oxide of manganese, 16 parts. The above ingredients are worked up in a mortar with water, at 104 Fahr., and the matches previously tipped with sulphur are dipped therein and afterwards dried.

[Page 169]

_Fourth Experiment._

The combustion of phosphorus under water is easily demonstrated by placing some ordinary stick phosphorus in a metallic cup, and then plunging it rapidly under the surface of boiling water. If a jet of oxygen gas is now directed upon the liquid phosphorus, it burns with great brilliancy. When the oxygen escapes too rapidly from the jet, it causes some small particles to be thrown out of the water, so that it is advisable to defend the face with a sheet of wire gauze held a few inches above the gla.s.s whilst the experiment is being conducted. (Fig.

153.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 153. A A. Finger-gla.s.s of boiling water containing a metallic cup with melted phosphorus. C. Jet of oxygen gas. D D. Sheet of wire gauze.]

_Fifth Experiment._

Phosphorus burns and emits beautiful flashes of light in the presence of the gas called peroxide of chlorine (ClO_{4}), which must be very carefully generated under the surface of water by first placing some cut phosphorus and chlorate of potash at the bottom of a long and stout cylindrical gla.s.s nearly full of water; sulphuric acid is then conveyed to the chlorate of potash by means of a syphon, the end of which must be drawn out to a small opening, or else the oil of vitriol will descend too rapidly, and the gla.s.s will be cracked by the heat. Immediately the peroxide of chlorine comes in contact with the phosphorus it explodes, and pa.s.ses again to its original elements, oxygen and chlorine. These bubbles envelope minute particles of phosphorus, which rapidly ascend, like water-spiders, to the surface, and burn as they pa.s.s upwards, producing a continual series of sparks of fire, which have an extremely pretty effect. (Fig. 154.) The syphon is of course first filled with water, and as that is displaced, the oil of vitriol takes its place.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 154. A A. Tall gla.s.s nearly full of water; at the bottom are the chlorate of potash and phosphorus. B. Wolfe's bottle and syphon, conveying the oil of vitriol to bottom of A A.]

[Page 170]

_Sixth Experiment._

If a little phosphorus is placed in a small copper boiler, and the steam allowed to escape from a jet, it is observed to be luminous, in consequence of a minute portion of phosphorus being carried up mechanically with the steam. The same fact is shown very prettily by boiling water in a flask containing some phosphorus.

_Seventh Experiment._

Phosphorus explodes violently when rubbed with a little chlorate of potash, and in order to perform this experiment safely, it should be made in a strong iron mortar, the pestle of which must be surrounded with a large circle of cardboard and wire gauze; so that when it is brought down upon the phosphorus and chlorate of potash, any particles that may fly out are detained by the shield. Without this precaution the experiment is one of the most dangerous that can be made. (Fig. 155.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 155. A. The iron mortar containing the phosphorus and chlorate of potash. B. The pestle, with the shield, C C, composed of a circle of wire gauze, covered with one of cardboard.]

_Eighth Experiment._

Phosphuretted hydrogen owes its property of spontaneous combustion to the presence of the vapour of a liquid, phosphide of hydrogen (PH_{2}), which may be prepared by placing some phosphide of calcium into a flask with water heated to a temperature of 140 Fah., and conveying the gas into a U-shaped tube surrounded with a mixture of ice and salt. The liquid obtained is colourless, and must be preserved from contact with air, as it takes fire spontaneously directly it is exposed to the atmosphere. (Fig. 156.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 156. A. The flask containing the phosphide of calcium and water, and placed in a water-bath heated to 140 Fah. B.

Bent tube conveying the gas to C C, the U-shaped tube, to which it is attached by india-rubber tubing, C C. The U-shaped tube, surrounded with a freezing mixture. D D. Bent tube, pa.s.sing into a cup of water to prevent contact with air.]

[Page 171]

_Ninth Experiment._

Phosphide of calcium is quickly prepared by placing some small pieces of lime in a crucible and making them red-hot; if lumps of dry phosphorus are thrown into the crucible, and the cover placed on quickly, and immediately after the phosphorus, the latter unites with the calcium, and forms a brown substance which produces gaseous phosphide of hydrogen (PH_{3}) when placed in water, and the gas takes fire spontaneously when it comes in contact with the air.

_Tenth Experiment._

Phosphorus placed in a retort with a tolerably strong solution of potash, and a small quant.i.ty of ether, affords a large quant.i.ty of phosphide of hydrogen (commonly called phosphuretted hydrogen) when boiled. The neck of the retort must dip into a basin of water, and the object of the ether is to prevent the combustion of the first bubbles of gas _inside_ the retort, which by their explosion would probably break the gla.s.s. If the neck of the retort is kept under water in which potash is dissolved, the gas may be generated for many days at pleasure, although it is not a desirable experiment to renew too often, on account of the disagreeable odour produced. (Fig. 157.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 157. A retort containing the phosphorus, water, potash, and ether. B. Neck dipping into a basin of water. C. The gas burning, and producing beautiful rings of smoke.]

_Eleventh Experiment._

When a jar of oxygen is held over the neck of the retort generating the phosphuretted hydrogen, a bright flash of light and explosion are observed; and if the experiment is performed in a darkened room, it is just like a sudden flash of lightning. A bottle of chlorine held over the neck [Page 172] of the retort, and dipping of course in the water of the basin, produces a green flame every time the bubble of gas pa.s.ses into it. That curious appearance of light, sometimes seen in marshy districts, called will-o'-the-wisp, is supposed to be due to the escape, from decomposing matter, of bubbles of hydrogen, nitrogen, &c., through which the spontaneously inflammable phosphide of hydrogen is diffused.

At a place called Dead Man's Island, near Sheerness, magnificent effects of this kind are sometimes apparent when the mud banks are accidentally stirred at night by a boat-hook. A credible observer says, he once saw there a flash of yellowish-green light, accompanied with noise, about thirty feet in height. The apparent height might be due to the duration of the impression of the flash on the eye, as the light from the burning phosphuretted hydrogen ascended rapidly upwards. The source of this gas appears to be due to the fact, that during the time some Russian ships were watched by the Brest fleet, a number of the sailors died of cholera, and were buried in the banks; the decomposition of the bone containing phosphorus would account for the appearance of light already described.

With the discussion of some of the most interesting properties of the thirteen non-metallic elements we take leave of the subject of chemistry, reserving the consideration of the metals for another popular juvenile work, of which they will form the subject.

In answer to the oft-repeated question, "Where can I get the _things_ for the experiments?" it may be stated that every kind of gla.s.s vessel and the chemicals mentioned in this chapter, can be procured either of Messrs. Simpson, Maule, and Co., Kennington, or of Griffin and Co., Bunhill-row, or Bolton and Co., High Holborn.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 158. Will-o'-the-wisp.]

[Page 173]

CHAPTER XIII.

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 159. Franklin and his kite.]

Of all the agents with which man is acquainted, not one can afford a greater source of wonderment to the ignorant, of meditation to the learned, than the effects of that marvellous force pervading all matter called electricity. We look at matter endowed with life, and matter wanting this divine gift, with some degree of interest, depending on our various tastes and occupations; we know at a glance a bird, a beast, or a fish; we observe with pleasure and admiration the wonderful changes of nature, and know that a few seeds thrown into the broken clods and well-tilled earth may become either the waving, golden corn-field or in time may grow from the tender little shrub to the stately forest-tree; we know all these things because they belong to the visible world, and are continually pa.s.sing before our eyes: but in looking at the visible, we must not forget and ignore the invisible. It may with truth be [Page 174] stated that the greatest powers of nature are all concealed, and if any truth would lead us from Nature to Nature's G.o.d, it is the fact that no visible, solid, tangible agent can work with so much force and power as invisible electricity. Many centuries pa.s.sed away since the commencement of the Christian era, before the human mind was prepared to appreciate this great power of nature; other forces had claimed attention, and the difference in the presence or absence of two of the imponderable agents, heat and light, as derived from the sun, in the effects of the change of the seasons, and other common facts, had led philosophers to speculate early upon their nature; but electricity, from its peculiar properties, long escaped observation, and it was not until the beginning of the eighteenth century (about 1730) that any material facts had been discovered in this science, when Mr. Stephen Grey, a pensioner of the Charterhouse, discovered what he termed _electrics_ and _non-electrics_, and also the use of insulating materials, such as silk, resin, gla.s.s, hair, &c.; and it is obvious that, until the latter fact was discovered, the science would remain in abeyance, because there would be no mode of preserving the electrical excitement in the absence of non-conductors of this force.