13. I believe, with a firm and perfect faith, the Resurrection of the Dead shall happen when G.o.d shall think fit. Blessed, and glorified eternally, be the name of the Creator! Amen.

THE UNBELIEVER'S CREED.

"I believe that there is no G.o.d, but that matter is G.o.d, and G.o.d is matter, and that it is no matter whether there is any G.o.d or not. I believe, also, that the world was not made; that the world made itself; that it had no beginning; that it will last for ever, world without end.

"I believe that a man is a beast, that the soul is the body, and the body is the soul; and that after death there is neither body nor soul.

"I believe there is no religion; that natural religion is the only religion; and that all religion is unnatural. I believe not in Moses; I believe in the first philosophy; I believe not in the Evangelists; I believe in Chubb, Collins, Toland, Tindal, Morgan, Mandeville, Woolston, Hobbes, and Shaftsbury; I believe in lord Bolingbroke; I believe not in St. Paul.

"I believe not in revelation; I believe in tradition; I believe in the Talmud; I believe in the Alcoran; I believe not in the Bible; I believe in Socrates; I believe in Confucius; I believe in Sanchoneathon; I believe in Mahomet; I believe not in Christ.

"Lastly, I believe in all unbelief."

EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS "WHIG" AND "TORY."--Burnet, who was contemporary with the introduction of these terms, gives the following account of the former:--

"The south-west counties of Scotland have seldom corn enough to serve them through the year; and the northern parts producing more than they need, those in the west come in the summer to buy at Leith, the stores that come from the north; and from a word (whiggam) used in driving their horses, all that drove were called Whiggamors, and, shorter, the Whigs. Now in that year, before the news came down of the duke of Hamilton's defeat, the ministers animated the people to rise and march to Edinburgh; and they came up, marching at the head of their parishes with an unheard-of fury, praying and preaching all the way as they came. This was called the Whiggamor's inroad; and ever after, all that opposed the court came in contempt to be called Whigs."

Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, quotes this pa.s.sage; yet by placing against the term Whig, the Saxon word _Whoeg_, synonymous to whey, or sour milk, he seems not to reject another derivation, which has been a.s.signed to it by some writers.

Echard says--"Great animosities were created by these pet.i.tioners and abhorrers, and they occasioned many feuds and quarrels in private conversations; and about the same time, 1680, and from the same cause, arose the pernicious terms and distinctions of Whig and Tory, both exotic names, which the parties invidiously bestowed upon each other. All that adhered to the interest of the crown and lineal succession, were by the contrary branded with the t.i.tle given to the Irish robbers; and they, in return, gave the others the appellation of Whig, or sour milk, formerly appropriated to the Scotch presbyterians and rigid covenanters."--p. 988.

Tindal, in his introduction to the Continuation of Rapin's History, notices the distinction between the principles of the parties, but does not inquire into the etymology of the terms.--Vol. i. p. 15.

Toland, in his State Anatomy, considers the words as mere terms of reproach, first applied to each party by its enemies, and then adopted by each as a distinction.

"The words themselves are but late nicknames, given by each party to the other in King Charles the Second's reign: Tories in Ireland, and Whigs in Scotland, being what we in England call highwaymen; and you, public robbers."--Part I.

Hume, the historian, says--

"This year, 1680, is remarkable for being the epoch of the well-known epithets Whig and Tory, by which, and sometimes without any material difference, this island has been so long divided. The court party reproached their antagonists with their affinity to the fanatical conventiclers, who were known by the name of Whigs; and the country party found a resemblance between the courtiers and the Popish banditti in Ireland, who were known by the name of Tories."--Vol. VIII. p. 125.

These are the princ.i.p.al writers in which the origin of the terms is noticed.

CHAP. Lx.x.xIII.

MISCELLANEOUS CURIOSITIES.

_Monster--Individuation--Reproduction--Peruke--Centaurs and Lapithae._

MONSTER.--A birth or production of a living being, degenerating from the proper and usual disposition of parts in the species to which it belongs; as, when there are too many members, or too few; or some of them are extravagantly out of proportion, either on the side of defect or excess,--is generally denominated a monster.

F. Malebranche accounts for the production of monsters in the animal world in the following manner:--"The Creator has established such a communication between the several parts of his creation, that we are naturally led to imitate one another, i. e. to have a disposition to do the same things, and a.s.sume the same manners, with those about which we converse; we have also certain natural dispositions, which incline us to compa.s.sion as well as imitation. Of these things most men are sensible, and therefore they need not be proved. The animal spirits, then, are not only naturally carried into the respective parts of the body to perform the same actions and the same motions which we see others do, but also to receive in some manner their wounds, and take part in their sufferings.

"Experience tells us, that when we look attentively on any person severely beaten, or that has a large wound, ulcer, or the like, the spirits immediately flow into those parts of our bodies which answer to those we see suffer in the other; unless their course be stopped from some other principle. This flux of spirits is very sensible in persons of delicate const.i.tutions, who frequently shudder, and find a kind of trembling in the body on these occasions; and this sympathy in bodies produces compa.s.sion in the mind.

"Now it must be observed, that the view of a wound, &c. affects the person who views it the more strongly and sensibly, as the person is more weak and delicate; the spirits making a stronger impression on the fibres of a delicate body, than in those of a robust one. Thus, strong and vigorous men, &c. see an execution without much concern, while women, &c. are struck with pity and horror. As to children that are unborn, the fibres of their flesh being incomparably finer than those in women, the course of the animal spirits must necessarily produce much greater alterations.

"These things being laid down, monsters are easily accounted for. Suppose, for instance, a child to be born a fool, and also with its legs and arms broken in the same manner as those are of criminals executed; the phenomena may be accounted for thus: Every stroke given to the poor man struck forcibly the imagination of the mother, and, by a kind of counter-stroke, the tender and delicate brain of the child. Now, though the fibres of the woman's brain were strongly shaken by the violent flux of animal spirits on this occasion, yet they had strength and consistence enough to prevent an entire disorder; whereas the fibres of the child's brain, being unable to bear the shock of those spirits, were quite ruined, and the ravage was great enough to deprive him of reason all his lifetime.

"Again, the view of an execution frightening the mother, the violent course of the animal spirits was directed forcibly from the brain to all those parts of the body corresponding to the suffering parts of the criminal and the same thing must happen in the child. But as the bones were strong enough to resist the impulse of those spirits, they were not damaged; and yet the rapid course of these spirits could easily overpower and break the tender and delicate fibres of the bones of the child; the bones being the last parts of the body that are formed, and having a very slender consistence, while the child is yet in the womb."

To this it may here be added, that had the mother determined the course of these spirits towards some other part of her body, by tickling or scratching herself vehemently, the child would not in all probability have had its bones broken; but the part answering that to which the motion of the spirits was determined, would have been the sufferer. Hence appears the reason why women, in the time of gestation, seeing persons, &c. marked in such a manner in the face, impress the same mark on the same parts of the child; and why, upon rubbing some other part of the body when startled at the sight of any thing, or agitated with any extraordinary pa.s.sion, the mark or impression is fixed on that hidden part, rather than on the face of the child. From the principles here laid down, most, if not all, of the phenomena of monsters, may be easily accounted for.

Various other theories have been formed by different philosophers and phisiologists. But, after all, it must be confessed that we seem as yet to be very little acquainted with nature in her numerous variations.

Monsters are more common and more extraordinary in the vegetable than in the animal kingdom, because the different juices are more easily deranged and confounded together. Leaves are often seen, from the internal part of which other leaves spring forth; and it is not uncommon to see flowers of the ranunculus, from the middle of which issues a stalk bearing another flower. M. Bonnet informs us, that in certain warm and rainy years he has frequently met with monsters of this kind in rose-trees. This observer saw a rose, from the centre of which issued a square stalk of a whitish colour, tender, and without p.r.i.c.kles, which at its top bore two flower-buds opposite to each other, and totally dest.i.tute of a calix; a little above the buds issued a petal of a very irregular shape. Upon the p.r.i.c.kly stalk which supported the rose, a leaf was observed which had the shape of trefoil, together with a broad flat pedicle. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, for 1707, p. 448, mention is made of a rose, from the centre of the leaves of which issued a rose-branch two or three inches long, and furnished with leaves. See the same Memoirs for 1724, p. 20, and for 1749, p. 44. In the Memoirs for 1755, a very singular instance is mentioned of a monstrosity observed by M. Duhamel, in an apple-tree ingrafted with clay. At the place of the insertion there appeared a bud, which produced a stalk and some leaves; the stalk and the pedicle of the leaves were of a pulpy substance, and had the most perfect resemblance both in taste and smell to the pulp of a green apple.

An extraordinary _chamaemelum_ is mentioned in the _Acta Helvetica_. M.

Bonnet, in his _Recherches sur l'Usage des Feuilles_, mentions likewise some monstrous productions which have been found in fruits with kernels, a.n.a.logous in their nature to those which occur in the flowers of the ranunculus and of the rose-tree. He has seen a pear, from the eye of which issued a tuft of thirteen or fourteen leaves, very well shaped, and many of them of the natural size. He has seen another pear which gave rise to a ligneous and knotty stalk, on which grew another pear somewhat larger than the first. The stalk had probably flourished, and the fruit had formed.

The _lilium alb.u.m polyanthos_, observed some years ago at Breslaw, which bore on its top a bundle of flowers, consisting of one hundred and two lilies, all of the common shape, is well-known. M. Regnier has mentioned some individuals monstrous with respect to the flower, in the _Journal de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle_, for November, 1785. He has likewise mentioned a monstrous tulip, which is seen in the gardens of some amateurs; juniper berries with horns; a balsamine with three spurs, &c.

INDIVIDUATION,--is the unity of a thing with itself, or that whereby a thing is what it is.

To begin with those species of body that are not properly organized, which have neither life nor sense, as stones, metals, &c. In these, individuation seems to consist in nothing but greater or less: take the less part of a stone away, you may still call it the same stone; take an equal part with the remains, that individuation ceases, and they are two new individuals. Divide a stone, &c. as often as you please, every part of it will be a stone still, another individual stone, as much as any in the mountain or quarry out of which it was first cut, even though reduced to the minutest sand, or, if possible, a thousand times less. But when we take one step farther, and proceed a degree higher, to the vegetable kingdom, the case is far otherwise; and indeed Nature seems to be still more distinct, and, as it were, careful in its individuation, the higher it rises, till at last it brings us to that great transcendental individual, the only proper uncompounded essence, the One G.o.d, blessed for ever.

To return to plants: their individuation consists in that singular form, contexture, and order of their parts, whereby they are disposed for those uses to which Nature has designed them, and by which they receive and maintain their beings. For example, in a tree, though you take away the branches, it grows, receives nourishment from the earth, maintains itself, and is still a tree, which the parts thereof are not when separated from the rest; for we cannot say that every part of a tree is a tree, as we can that every part of a stone is still a stone, but if this tree be cloven in two or more pieces, or felled by the roots, this contexture, or orderly respect of the parts one to another, ceases; its essence as a tree is destroyed; its individuation perishes; and it is no more a tree, but a stump, or piece of timber.

Let us proceed a degree higher, to merely sensible creatures, who are not so immediately depending on the earth, the common mother, as the plants, nor rooted to it as they are, but walk about, and have a kind of independent existence, and are a sort of world by themselves. And here the individuation consists in such a particular contexture of their essential parts, and their relation one toward another, as enables them to exert the operations of the sensible or animal life. Thus, cut off the legs or any other parts of an animal, it is the same animal still; but cut off its head, or take away its life, and it is no longer that individual animal, but a mere carcase, and will, by degrees, resolve itself into common matter again.

To ascend now to the highest rank of visible beings,--the rational. The individuation of man appears to consist in the union of a rational soul with any convenient portion of fitly organized matter. Any portion of matter duly qualified, and united to the soul by such a union as we experience, is immediately individuated by it, and, together with that soul, makes a man; so that, if it were possible for one soul to be clothed over and over at different times with all the matter in the universe, it would in all those distinct shapes be the same individual man. Nor can a man be supposed in this case to differ more from himself, than he does from what he really was when an infant, or just pa.s.sed an embryo, when compared with what he is when of adult or decrepit age; he having, during that intermediate time, changed his portion of matter over and over; as, being fat and lean, sick and well, having been exhausted by bleeding, effluvia, perspiration, &c.; and reunited again by aliment; so that perhaps not one particle, or but very few of the first matter which he took from his parents, and brought with him into the world, is now remaining.

The preceding article is naturally followed by REPRODUCTION.--Reproduction is usually understood to mean the restoration of a thing before existing, and since destroyed. It is very well known that trees and plants may be raised from slips and cuttings; and some late observations have shewn, that there are some animals which have nearly the same property. The polype (See _Hydra_) was the first instance we had of this kind; but we had scarcely time to wonder at the discovery M. Trembley had made, when M.

Bonnet discovered the same property in a species of water-worm. Amongst the plants which may be raised from cuttings, there are some which seem to possess this quality in so eminent a degree, that the smallest portion of them will become a complete tree again. A twig of willow, poplar, or many other trees, being planted in the earth, takes root, and becomes a tree, every piece of which will in the same manner produce other trees. The case is the same with these worms: they are cut to pieces, and these several pieces become perfect animals; and each of these may be again cut into a number of pieces, each of which will in the same manner produce an animal.

It has been supposed by some, that these worms were oviparous; but, M.

Bonnet, on cutting one of them to pieces, having observed a slender substance, resembling a small filament, to move at the end of one of the pieces, separated it, and on examining it with gla.s.ses, found it to be a perfect worm, of the same form with its parent, which lived and grew larger in a vessel of water into which he put it. These small bodies are easily divided, and very readily complete themselves again, a day usually serving for the production of a head to the part that wants one; and, in general, the smaller and more slender the worms are, the sooner they complete themselves after this operation. When the bodies of the large worms are examined by the microscope, it is very easy to see the appearance of the young worms alive, and moving about within them; but it requires great precision and exactness to be certain of this, since the ramifications of the great artery have very much the appearance of young worms, and they are kept in a sort of continual motion by the systoles and diastoles of the several portions of the artery, which serve as so many hearts. It is very certain, that what we force in regard to these animals by our operations, is done also naturally every day in the brooks and ditches where they live. A curious observer will find in these places many of them without heads or tails, and some without either; as also, other fragments of various kinds, all of which are in the act of completing themselves; but whether accidents have reduced them to this state, or they thus purposely throw off parts of their own bodies for the production of more animals, it is not easy to determine. They are plainly liable to many accidents, by which they lose the several parts of their bodies; and they must perish very early, if they had not a power of reproducing what was lost. They are often broken into two parts, by the resistance of some hard piece of mud which they enter; and they are subject to a disease, a kind of gangrene, rotting off the several parts of their bodies, by which they must inevitably perish, were they not possessed of this surprising property.

The reproduction of several parts of lobsters, crabs, &c. is one of the greatest curiosities in natural history. It seems, indeed, inconsistent with the modern philosophical system of generation, which supposes the animal to be wholly formed in the egg; that, in lieu of an organical part of an animal cut off, another should arise perfectly like it: the fact, however, is too well attested to be denied. The legs of lobsters, &c.

consist each of five articulations; now, when any of the legs happen to break by any accident, as by walking, &c. which frequently occurs, the fracture is always found to be at the suture near the fourth articulation; and what they thus lose is exactly reproduced in some time afterwards; that is, a part of the leg shoots out, consisting of four articulations, the first whereof has two claws, as before; so that the loss is entirely repaired.

If the leg of a lobster be broken off by design at the fourth or fifth articulation, what is thus broken off is always reproduced, even after a second or third accident. But if the fracture be made in the first, second, or third articulation, the reproduction is not so certain. And it is very surprising, that if the fracture be made at these articulations, at the end of two or three days, all the other articulations are generally found broken off to the fourth, which, it is supposed, is done by the creature itself, to make the reproduction certain. The part reproduced, is not only perfectly similar in form to that retrenched, but also, in a certain s.p.a.ce of time, it grows equal to it. The creature is, however, frequently taken before this is accomplished. Hence it is that we frequently see lobsters, which have their two large legs unequal in all proportions.

PERUKE.--It appears that this term was originally applied to describe a fine natural head of long hair, and if this appellation had been retained, we should never have a.s.sociated wigs with monsters. But whatever may have been the ancient use or meaning of the word, it has now almost become obsolete, though it was for more than a century in constant application to those artificial heads of hair, made probably at first to conceal natural or accidental baldness, but which afterwards became so ridiculously fashionable, as to be worn in preference to the most beautiful locks, absurdly shaved off the head to make room for them.

Ancient authors might be quoted, to prove, that the great and luxurious of that time, had recourse to this mode of concealing defects, and of decorating the head; nay, it might perhaps be proved, that the peruke of the Emperor Commodus was more absurdly composed than any modern peruke has ever been; and indeed it must be admitted, that a wig powdered with sc.r.a.pings of gold, in addition to oils and glutinous perfumes, must have made a more wonderful appearance than our immediate ancestors ever witnessed. It was in the reign of our Charles the First, that perukes were introduced throughout Europe, when the moralists attacked them without mercy, as they perceived that the folly of youth even extended to the cutting off nature's locks, to be replaced by the hair of the dead, and of horses, woven into a filthy piece of canva.s.s. Admonition and ridicule were, however, of little avail, and the clergy began to be affected by the general mania. Those on the Continent being almost universally Roman Catholics, were so completely subject to their superiors, that the peruke was soon routed from their body; but as the dignified clergy of England conceive that their consequence is increased by the enormous bushes of hair upon their heads, and the judges have adopted their sentiments in this particular, it is probable many years will elapse before the shape and absurdity of two particular species of perukes are forgotten.

About the close of the seventeenth century, the peruke was made to represent the natural curl of the hair, but in such profusion, that ten heads would not have furnished an equal quant.i.ty, as it flowed down the back, and hung over the shoulders halfway down the arms. By 1721, it had become fashionable to tie one half of it on the left side into a club.

Between 1730 and 1740, the bag-wig came into fashion, and the peruke was docked considerably, and sometimes plaited behind into a queue, though even till 1752 the long flowing locks maintained their influence. After 1770 those were rarely seen; and since that time persons wearing perukes have generally had substantial reasons for so doing, from baldness, and complaints in the head. At one time, indeed, when the stern virtues of Brutus were much in vogue, the young men of Europe wore perukes of black or dark hair, dressed from his statues. Many particulars on this subject have been preserved by Mr. Malcolm, in his "Anecdotes of the Manners and Customs of London," from which we learn, that a young countrywoman obtained 60 for her head of hair in the year 1700, when human hair sold at 3 per ounce; and in 1720, the grey locks of an aged woman sold for 50 after her decease. Wigs of peculiar excellence were sold at 40 each.

A pet.i.tion from the master peruke-makers of London and Westminster, presented to the King, in 1763, points out the great decline of their use to have taken place at that time. In this they complain of the public wearing their own hair; and say, "That this mode, pernicious enough in itself to their trade, is rendered excessively more so by swarms of French hair-dressers already in those cities, and daily increasing."