Miocene - - - - - 4,250 m.

Oligocene - - - - 3,660 m.

Eocene - - - - - - 6,100 m.

and a.s.suming that the orogenic forces began their work in the last quarter of the Eocene period, we have a total of 13,400 m.

as some measure of the time which elapsed. At the rate of io centimetres in a century these deposits could not have collected in less than 13.4 millions of years. It would appear that not less than some ten millions of years were consumed in the genesis of the Alps before constructive movements finally ceased.

The progress of the earth-movements was attended by the usual volcanic phenomena. The Oligocene and Miocene volcanoes extended in a band marked by the Auvergne, the Eiffel, the Bohemian, and the eastern Carpathian eruptions; and, later, towards the close of the movements in Pliocene times, the south border

[1] Sollas, Anniversary Address, Geol. Soc., London, 1909.

147

regions of the Alps became the scene of eruptions such as those of Etna, Santorin, Somma (Vesuvius), etc.

We have referred to these well-known episodes with two objects in view: to recall to mind the time-interval involved, and the evidence of intense crustal disturbance, both dynamic and thermal. According to views explained in a previous essay, the energetic effects of radium in the sediments and upper crust were a princ.i.p.al factor in localising and bringing about these results. We propose now to inquire if, also, in the more intimate structure of the Alps, the radioactive energy may not have borne a part.

What we see today in the Alps is but a residue spared by denudation. It is certain that vast thicknesses of material have disappeared. Even while constructive effects were still in progress, denudative forces were not idle. Of this fact the shingle acc.u.mulations of the Mola.s.se, where, on the northern borders of the Alps, they stand piled into mountains, bear eloquent testimony. In the sub-Apennine series of Italy, the great beds of clays, marls, and limestones afford evidence of these destructive processes continued into Pliocene times. We have already referred to Schmidt's estimate that the sedimentary covering must have in places amounted to from 15,000 to 20,000 metres. The evidence for this is mainly tectonic or structural; but is partly forthcoming in the changes which the materials now open to our inspection plainly reveal. Thus it is impos-

148

sible to suppose that gneissic rocks can become so far plastic as to flow in and around the calcareous sediments, or be penetrated by the latter--as we see in the Jungfrau and elsewhere--unless great pressures and high temperatures prevailed. And, according to some writers, the temperatures revealed by the intimate structural changes of rock-forming minerals must have amounted to those of fusion. The existence of such conditions is supported by the observation that where the.crystallisation is now the most perfect, the phenomena of folding and injection are best developed.[1] These high temperatures would appear to be unaccountable without the intervention of radiothermal effects; and, indeed, have been regarded as enigmatic by observers of the phenomena in question. A covering of 20,000 metres in thickness would not occasion an earth-temperature exceeding 500 C. if the gradients were such as obtain in mountain regions generally; and 600 is about the limit we could ascribe to the purely pa.s.sive effects of such a layer in elevating the geotherms.

Those who are still unacquainted with the recently published observations on the structure of the Alps may find it difficult to enter into what has now to be stated; for the facts are, indeed, very different from the generally preconceived ideas of mountain formation. Nor can we wonder that many geologists for long held

[1] Weinschenk, C. R. _Congres Geol._, 1900, p. 321, et seq.

149

back from admitting views which appeared so extreme. Receptivity is the first virtue of the scientific mind; but, with every desire to lay aside prejudice, many felt unequal to the acceptance of structural features involving a folding of the earth-crust in laps which lay for scores of miles from country to country, and the carriage of mountainous materials from the south of the Alps to the north, leaving them finally as Alpine ranges of ancient sediments reposing on foundations of more recent date.

The historian of the subject will have to relate how some who finally were most active in advancing the new views were at first opposed to them. In the change of conviction of these eminent geologists we have the strongest proof of the convincing nature of the observations and the reality of the tectonic features upon which the recent views are founded.

The lesser mountains which stand along the northern border of the great limestone Alps, those known as the Prealpes, present the strange characteristic of resting upon materials younger than themselves. Such mountains as the remarkable-looking Mythen, near Schwyz, for instance, are weathered from ma.s.ses of Tria.s.sic and Jura.s.sic rock, and repose on the much more recent Flysch. In sharp contrast to the Flysch scenery, they stand as abrupt and gigantic erratics, which have been transported from the central zone of the Alps lying far to the south. They are strangers petrologically,

150

stratigraphically, and geographically,[1] to the locality in which they now occur. The exotic materials may be dolomites, limestones, schists, sandstones, or rocks of igneous origin. They show in every case traces of the severe dynamic actions to which they have been subjected in transit. The igneous, like the sedimentary, klippen, can be traced to distant sources; to the ma.s.sif of Belladonne, to Mont Blanc, Lugano, and the Tyrol. The Prealpes are, in fact, mountains without local roots.

In this last-named essential feature, the Prealpes do not differ from the still greater limestone Alps which succeed them to the south. These giants, _e.g._ the Jungfrau, Wetterhorn, Eiger, etc., are also without local foundations. They have been formed from the overthrown and drawn-out anticlines of great crust-folds, whose synclines or roots are traceable to the south side of the Rhone Valley. The Bernese Oberland originated in the piling-up of four great sheets or rec.u.mbent folds, one of which is continued into the Prealpes. With Lugeon[2] we may see in the phenomenon of the formation of the Prealpes a detail; regarding it as a normal expression of that mechanism which has created the Swiss Alps.

For these limestone ma.s.ses of the Oberland are not indications of a merely local shift of the sedimentary covering of the Alps.

Almost the whole covering has

[1] De Lapparent, _Traite de Geologie_, p. 1,785.

[2] Lugeon, _Bulletin Soc. Geol. de France_, 1901, p. 772.

151

been pushed over and piled up to the north. Lugeon[l] concludes that, before denudation had done its work and cut off the Prealpes from their roots, there would have been found sheets, to the number of eight, superimposed and extending between the Mont Blanc ma.s.sif and the ma.s.sif of the Finsteraarhorn: these sheets being the overthrown folds of the wrinkled sedimentary covering.

The general nature of the alpine structure

{Fig. 8}

will be understood from the presentation of it diagrammatically after Schmidt of Basel (Fig. 8).[2] The section extends from north to south, and brings out the relations of the several rec.u.mbent folds. We must imagine almost the whole of these superimposed folds now removed from the central regions of the Alps by denudation,

[1] Lugeon, _loc. cit._

[2] Schmidt, _Ec. Geol. Helvetiae_, vol. ix., No. 4.

152

and leaving the underlying gneisses rising through the remains of Permian, Tria.s.sic, and Jura.s.sic sediments; while to the north the great limestone mountains and further north still, the Prealpes, carved from the remains of the rec.u.mbent folds, now stand with almost as little resemblance to the vanished mountains as the memories of the past have to its former intense reality.

These views as to the origin of the Alps, which are shared at the present day by so many distinguished geologists, had their origin in the labours of many now gone; dating back to Studer; finding their inspiration in the work of Heim, Suess, and Marcel Bertrand; and their consummation in that of Lugeon, Schardt, Rothpletz, Schmidt, and many others. Nor must it be forgotten that nearer home, somewhat similar phenomena, necessarily on a smaller scale, were recognised by Lapworth, twenty-six years ago, in his work on the structure of the Scottish Highlands.

An important tectonic principle underlies the development of the phenomena we have just been reviewing. The uppermost of the superimposed rec.u.mbent folds is more extended in its development than those which lie beneath. Pa.s.sing downwards from the highest of the folds, they are found to be less and less extended both in the northerly and in the southerly direction, speaking of the special case--the Alps--now before us. This feature might be described somewhat differently. We might say that those folds which had their roots farther

153

to the south were the most drawn-out towards the north: or again we might say that the synclinal or deep-seated part of the fold has lagged behind the anticlinal or what was originally the highest part of the fold, in the advance of the latter to the north. The anticline has advanced relatively to the syncline. To this law one exception only is observed in the Swiss Alps; the sheet of the Breche (_Byecciendecke_) falls short, in its northerly extension, of the underlying fold, which extends to form the Prealpes.

Contemplating such a generalised section as Professor Schmidt's, or, indeed, more particular sections, such as those in the Mont Blanc Ma.s.sif by Marcel Bertrand,[1] of the Dent de Morcles, Diablerets, Wildhorn, and Ma.s.sif de la Breche by Lugeon,[2] or finally Termier's section of the Pelvoux Ma.s.sif,[3] one is reminded of the breaking of waves on a sloping beach. The wave, r.e.t.a.r.ded at its base, is carried forward above by its momentum, and finally spreads far up on the strand; and if it could there remain, the succeeding wave must necessarily find itself superimposed upon the first. But no effects of inertia, no kinetic effects, may be called to our aid in explaining the formation of mountains. Some geologists have accordingly supposed that in order to account for

[1] Marcel Bertrand, _Cong. Geol. Internat._, 1900, Guide Geol., xiii. a, p. 41.

[2] Lugeon, _loc. cit._, p. 773.

[3] De Lapparent, _Traite de Geol._, p. 1,773.

154

the rec.u.mbent folds and the peculiar phenomena of increasing overlap, or _deferlement_, an obstacle, fixed and deep-seated, must have arrested the roots or synclines of the folds, and held them against translational motion, while a movement of the upper crust drew out and carried forward the anticlines. Others have contented themselves by recording the facts without advancing any explanatory hypothesis beyond that embodied in the incontestable statement that such phenomena must be referred to the effects of tangential forces acting in the Earth's crust.

It would appear that the explanation of the phenomena of rec.u.mbent folds and their _deferlement_ is to be obtained directly from the temperature conditions prevailing throughout the stressed pile of rocks; and here the subject of mountain tectonics touches that with which we were elsewhere specially concerned--the geological influence of acc.u.mulated radioactive energy.

As already shown[1], a rise of temperature due to this source of several hundred degrees might be added to such temperatures as would arise from the mere blanketing of the Earth, and the consequent upward movement of the geotherms. The time element is here the most important consideration. The whole sequence of events from the first orogenic movements to the final upheaval in Pliocene times must probably have occupied not less than ten million years.

[1] _Mountain Genesis_, p. 129, et seq.

155

Unfortunately the full investigation of the distribution of temperature after any given time is beset with difficulties; the conditions being extremely complex. If the radioactive heating was strictly adiabatic--that is, if all the heat was conserved and none entered from without--the time required for the attainment of the equilibrium radioactive temperature would be just about six million years. The conditions are not, indeed, adiabatic; but, on the other hand, the rocks upraised by lateral pressure were by no means at 0 C. to start with. They must be a.s.sumed to have possessed such temperatures as the prior radiothermal effects, and the conducted heat from the Earth's interior, may have established.

It would from this appear probable that if a duration of ten million years was involved, the equilibrium radioactive temperatures must nearly have been attained. The effects of heat conducted from the underlying earthcrust have to be added, leading to a further rise in temperature of not less than 500 or 600 . In such considerations the observed indications of high temperatures in materials now laid bare by denudation, probably find their explanation (P1. XIX).

The first fact that we infer from the former existence of such a temperature distribution is the improbability, indeed the impossibility, that anything resembling a rigid obstacle, or deep-seated "horst," can have existed beneath the present surface-level, and opposed the northerly movement of the deep-lying synclines. For

156