[Sketch of foot and stirrup].

Bridles and Bits.--Leave behind all English notions of snaffles and double reins, and ride with nothing but an easy curb. The horse must also carry a headstall and a halter; I like one with plenty of ta.s.sels, to keep off the flies. A temporary subst.i.tute for a curb is made by noosing a string, and putting the noose round the horse's lower jaw. If the string be long enough, it can be doubled back again, and tied to the other side of the noose, so as to make a complete bridle. The groom's fashion of giving the halter a hitch, and putting it round the jaw, is well known.

Buckles.--A contrivance like this will often be found useful to replace a buckle and strap; by twisting the lower thong more tightly, its length can be shortened as much as may be required. If the tongue of a buckle breaks, a nail or a peg, pushed through the buckle-hole, as in the figure below will replace it.

[Three sketches to ill.u.s.trate items described on this page].

To Padlock a Bag.--A padlock, pa.s.sed through the next buckle-hole, as is also shown in the same figure, prevents pilferers from unbuckling and opening the package. It is well to learn some artful sailor's-knot for tying up bags, with which other people cannot meddle without your finding it out.

Rings.--In packing-gear and other harness, use is frequently made of rings. Iron ones may be replaced by a loop of tough wood, such as the peasants of the Campagna commonly employ: a piece of the thickness of a small walking-stick, and eight inches long, is bent (see "Wood, to bend"); its arms are notched when they cross, and are firmly nailed or lashed.

Tethers, Hobbles, and Knee-halters.--Cattle may be secured at night by being tethered, hobbled, knee-haltered, or driven into an enclosure made of bushes. The nature of the country, and what dangers are apprehended, determine which plan is most advisable. A knee-haltered horse has a good change of escape if he scents a wild beast that is creeping up to him; for he can gallop, though with labour, to a short distance. A hobbled horse has no chance at all; though, indeed, they have been known to fight desperately with their teeth and feet, and learn to be cunning and watchful. If the hobbles are of iron, and made like handcuffs, it is hardly possible for robbers--at all events for savages--to unlock or cut them. A horse that is hobbled or knee-haltered, can graze during the night; but if tied up or pounded, his gra.s.s must be cut for him. A horse may be successfully hobbled with a stirrup-leather, by putting its middle round one fetlock, then twisting it half-a-dozen times, and, lastly, buckling it round the other fetlock. The hobble used by Mr. Gregory takes into five separate pieces, viz., two fetlock straps, a1, a2; a chain, b, having a swivel point, c, in the middle; and two double pot-hooks, d1, d2, which pa.s.s through eyes in the fetlock straps, and also through the end links in the chain. The two ends of both, d1 and d2, are thickened and pierced, so as to admit of tying a thong across their mouths, as shown on one side of d2. The fetlock strap is made of a strip of thick leather, folded lengthways down its middle, and having its edges sewn together. The sewn edge should always be the uppermost, when on the horse's legs.

[Two sketches on this page ill.u.s.trating equipment].

Oxen are often picketed to their yokes; I have already mentioned that it is hazardous to secure ride and pack oxen by their nose reams, as they will tear themselves loose without heeding the pain, if really frightened. Horses are often tied to the wheels, etc., of the wagon. When you wish to picket horses in the middle of a sandy plain, dig a hole two or three feet deep, and tying your rope to a f.a.ggot of sticks or brush-wood, or even to a bag filled with sand, bury this in it. (See "Dateram.")

Swivel.--The woodcut shows how a makeshift swivel can be fitted to a tether rope. Without one, the rope will be twisted almost up to a knot by the horse walking round and round his picket peg; with one, the rope will turn freely in the hole, through which its large knotted head prevents it from being drawn.

[This page has two sketches showing material described below].

The figure below is a better sort of swivel. It must be made of hard tough wood, like oak: it is six inches in length. It has, I presume, some advantages over those of iron, because in countries where iron abounds, as in Piedmont, it holds its ground against them. The ropes have been drawn thinner than their just proportion, for the sake of distinctness.

I give a drawing of yet another description of swivel; it is a trifle more complicated than the first, but I am a.s.sured that it acts so much better as to be greatly preferable.

Horse-collar.--This, in its simplest form, consists of two stout bars that are a little bent or shaped with a knife; they go one on either side of the animal's neck, and are tied together both above and below it. To these bars, which are very thickly padded, the traces are fastened.

Traces and Trektows can be made of raw hide, cut into a long thong, then bent into three parts, and twisted and laid together, as is done in rope-making; the whole is then stretched tight between two trees to dry.

An ox-hide will make a trektow for four pairs of oxen. Poles of wood are very generally used as traces; a thong, or a few links of chain, being fastened at either end, by which to attach them.

Greasing Harness.--In dry climates take frequent opportunities of greasing every part of the harness. (See "Hides; Leather, to grease.")

CARRIAGES.

Wagons.--A traveller's wagon should be of the simplest possible construction, and not too heavy. The Cape wagons, or, at all events, those of a few years back, undoubtedly shared the ponderousness of all Dutch workmanship. Weight is required only when crashing through a bushy country, where a wagon must break down all before it: in every other case it is objectionable. It is a saving of labour to have one large wagon, rather than two small ones, because a driver and a leader are thereby spared. But if a very light wagon has to be taken, I should greatly prefer its being made on the Swiss and German fashion, with a shifting perch as in the figure

[Drawing of fastening].

These are the simplest of affairs, and will split up into two carts--the pole and the fore-wheels forming one, and the perch and the hind-wheels another: now, should a great loss occur among the traveller's cattle, or should he break a wheel, or even strain an axle-tree, in a timberless country, it may be very convenient to him to abandon part of his stores, and to build up a cart for carrying on the remainder. Lady Vavasour describes one of these wagons in the following graphic manner:--"The perch is moveable, and they can make it any length they please; it is of so simple a construction that every farmer can repair his own, and make anything of it. If he has a perch, a pole, and four wheels, that is enough; with a little ingenuity, he makes it carry stones, hay, earth, or anything he wants, by putting a plank at each side. When he wants a carriage for pleasure, he fits it up for that purpose; his moveable perch allows him to make it anything. I counted seventeen grown persons sitting side by side, looking most happy, in one of them, drawn only by a pair of small horses, and in this hilly country."

Drays.--Two-wheeled drays, and not wagons, are used very generally in Australia. A long bar is crossed by a short one near one of its ends,--this latter forms the axletree; the body of the dray is built where the two cross; and the cattle are yoked or harnessed to the long end of the bar, which acts as a pole.

Tarring Wheels.--Tar is absolutely essential in a hot country, to mix with the grease that is used for the wagon-wheels. Grease, alone, melts and runs away like water: the object of the tar is to give consistency to the grease; a very small proportion of tar suffices, but without any at all, a wagon is soon brought to a standstill. It is, therefore, most essential to explorers to have a sufficient quant.i.ty in reserve. Tar is also of very great use in hot dry countries for daubing over the wheels, and the woodwork generally, of wagons. During extreme heat, when the wood is ready to crack, all the paint should be sc.r.a.ped off it, and the tar applied plentifully. It will soak in deeply, and preserve the wood in excellent condition, both during the drought and the ensuing wet season.

(See "Tar, to make.") It is not necessary to take off the wheels in order to grease the axles. It is sufficient to bore an auger-hole right through the substance of the nave, between the feet of two of the spokes, and to keep a plug in the hole. Then, when you want to tar a wheel, turn it till the hole is uppermost, take the plug out, and pour in the tar.

Breaks and Drags.--Breaks.--Every cart and wagon in Switzerland, and, indeed, in most parts of the Continent, has a break attached to it: the simplest kind of break is shown in fig. 2, which represents a cart tilted upwards. Fig 1 shows the break itself; fig. 2 explains how it is fitted on to the cart. [Fig 1.] It will easily be understood how, by tightening the free end of the cord, the break is pressed against the wheels. The bent piece of iron shown in fig. 2, by which the bar of the break is kept in its place, may be replaced by a piece of wood, or even by a thong of leather. Every explorer's wagon should be furnished with a break.

[Fig 2].

A simple break, used in Italy, in some parts of England and probably elsewhere, is shown in fig. 3. A rail is lashed to the body of the cart, both before and behind the wheel, and is made to press against the wheel.

Either both lashings can be tightened at the same time, as at A, A; or only one of them, as at B. When the lashings are loose, the rail rests partly on the nave of the wheel and does not sensibly interfere with its movement.

[Fig. 3].

Other Means of Checking a Wagon on a Hill-side.--In going down a steep hill a middling-sized tree may be felled, and its root tied to the hind axletree, while its branchy top sweeps along the ground, as is seen in the lowermost wagon in the sketch. [Sketch of horses and wagons on hill]

In the south-west of France the leaders of the team are unharnessed and taken to the back of the wagon, to which the collar of the front horse is made fast; in this way they can aid the horses in the shafts. The same plan may be seen practised hourly in the Strand in London, whence heavy wagons are taken down a very steep and narrow lane to the Adelphi.

In descending short steep pitches, unharness the cattle, and "fasten a rope round the axle of the wagon; then pa.s.sing the other end round a tree or rock as a check, you may let her slide, which she will do without any further trouble on your part." (F. Marryat.)

In some places the hind wheels are taken off, and sledge runners are fitted to the hind axletree. This is an excellent plan; it has the further advantage that the wagon settles down into a more horizontal position than before. I have seen timber carried on a wagon down a steep hill by separating the front wheels from the hind ones, lashing a trail (see "Travail" below) or two short poles to the fore axletree, and resting one end of the timber on the hind axletree, and the other end on the trail.

Shoe the wheel on the side furthest from the precipice.

If you have to leave a cart or wagon untended for a while, lock the wheel.

[Sketch of loaded sledge].

Sledges.--When carrying wood or stones, and doing other heavy work, a traveller should spare his wagon and use a sledge. This is made by cutting down a forked tree, lopping off its branches, and shaping it a little with an axe. If necessary, a few bars may be fixed across the fork so as to make a stage. Great distances may be traversed by one of these rude affairs, if the country is not very stony. Should it capsize, no great harm is done; and if it breaks down, or is found to have been badly made, an hour's labour will suffice to construct another. Sledges are very useful where there is an abundance of horse or ox power, but no wagon or packing-gear.

North American Travail.--In a North American Indian horse "travail," the crossing of the poles (they are the poles of the wigwams) usually rests on a rough pack-saddle or pad, which a breast-strap keeps from slipping backwards. In a dog travail the cross of the poles rests on the back of the neck, and is kept in place by a breast or rather a neck strap; the poles are wrapped with pieces of buffalo robe where they press against the dog. Captain Blakiston--a very accurate authority--considers that a horse will travel 30 miles in the day, dragging on the travail a weight of about 200 lbs., including a child, whose mother sits on the horse's back; and that a dog, the size of an average retriever, will draw about 80 lbs. for the same distance. (N.B. The North American plains are perfectly level.)

[Sketch of horse with "travail"].

Palanquins, carried like sedan-chairs, between two animals--one going before the other in shafts--are in use in various countries; but I am not aware that explorers have ever properly tried them. Their advantage would lie in combining the convenience of a cart with much of the independence of pack-horses. For whatever is lashed on a pack-saddle must be securely tied up; it is therefore severely compressed, and cannot be taken out en route. But with a cart or a palanquin there is no such inconvenience: things may be quickly thrown into them or taken out; pockets and drawers may be fitted up; and the palanquin would afford some shelter in rain. I should think it would be well worth while to try one of these contrivances. It might be made en route; first accustoming the animals, when carrying their packs, to walk between long shafts, then, after some days, taking the load off their saddles, and lashing them on to the shafts. If all went well, a regular palanquin might be constructed with legs, to be let down when the animals are off-packed, and on which it might stand until ready to be again carried onwards. Half-a-dozen palanquins in file would make a pretty, and, I should think, a manageable and effective caravan. a.s.ses ought to be able to carry them well; a couple of a.s.ses would probably carry a greater weight than a single pack-horse, and would give no greater trouble; if so, their hardiness would be invaluable.

SWIMMING.

General Remarks.--Rate of Swimming. People swim much more slowly than is commonly supposed. In races between first-rate swimmers, for distances of 300 yards and upwards, the average pace of two miles an hour is barely, if at all, exceeded.

Learning to Swim.--A good way of teaching a person to swim, is a modification of that adopted at Eton. The teacher may sit in a punt or on a rock, with a stout stick of 6 or 10 feet in length, at the end of which is a cord of 4 feet or so, with loops. The learner puts himself into the loops; and the teacher plays him, as a fisherman would play a fish, in water that is well out of his depth: he gives him just enough support to keep him from drowning. After six or a dozen lessons, many boys require no support at all, but swim about with the rope dangling slack about them. When a boy does this, he can be left to shift for himself. The art of swimming far is acquired, like the art of running far, by a determination to go on, without resting a moment, until utterly unable to make a stroke further, and then to stop altogether. Each succeeding day, the distance travelled is marvellously increased, until the natural limit of the man's powers is attained. The chilliness consequent on staying long in water is r.e.t.a.r.ded by rubbing all over the body, before entering it, about twice as much oil or bear's-grease as a person uses for his hair.

To support those who cannot Swim.--If a person cannot swim a stroke, he should be buoyed up with floats under his arms, and lashed quite securely, to his own satisfaction; then he can be towed across the river with a string. If he lose courage halfway, it cannot be helped: it will do him no harm, and his swimming friend is in no danger of being grappled with and drowned. For very short distances, a usual way is for the man who cannot swim to hold his friend by the hips. A very little floating power is enough to buoy a man's head, above still water. (See "African Swimming Ferry," below.)

Landing through Breakers.--In landing through a heavy surf, wait for a large wave, and come in on the crest of it; then make every possible exertion to scramble up to some firm holding-place, whence its indraught, when it returns, can be resisted. If drawn back, you will be heavily battered, perhaps maimed, certainly far more exhausted than before, and not a whit nearer to safety. Avoid receiving a breaker in the att.i.tude of scrambling away from it on hands and knees: from such a position, the wave projects a man headforemost with fearful force, and rolls him over and over in its surge. He ought to turn on his back the instant before the breaker is upon him; and then all will go well, and he will be helped on, and not half-killed by it. Men on sh.o.r.e can rescue a man who is being washed to and fro in the surf, by holding together, very firmly, hand-in-hand, and forming a line down to the sea: the foremost man clutches the swimmer as soon as he is washed up to him, and holds him firmly while the wave is retiring. The force of the indraught is enormous, and none but strong men can withstand it.

Floats.--If a traveller can swim pretty well, it is a good plan to make a float when he wishes to cross a river, and to lay his breast upon it, while his clothes and valuables are enclosed in a huge turban on his head. In this way, he may cross the broadest streams and float great distances down a river. He may tie paddles to his hands. His float may consist of a f.a.ggot of rushes, a log of wood, or any one of his empty water-vessels, whether barrels or bags; for whatever will keep water in, will also keep it out. The small quant.i.ty of air, which might escape through the sides of a bag, should be restored by blowing afresh into it, during the voyage. A few yards of intestine blown out and tied here and there, so as to form so many watertight compartments, makes a capital swimming belt: it may be wound in a figure of 8 round the neck and under the armpits. When employing empty bottles, they should be well corked and made fast under the armpits, or be stuffed within the shirt or jersey, and a belt tied round the waist below them, to keep them in place.

African Swimming Ferry.--The people of Yariba have a singular mode of transporting pa.s.sengers across rivers and streams, when the violence and rapidity of their currents prevent them from using canoes with safety.

The pa.s.senger grasps the float (see fig.), on the top of which his luggage is lashed; and a perfect equilibrium is preserved, by the ferry-man placing himself opposite the pa.s.senger, and laying hold of both his arms. They being thus face to face, the owner of the float propels it by striking with his legs. The natives use as their float two of their largest calabashes, cutting off their small ends, and joining the openings face to face, so as to form a large, hollow, watertight vessel.

[Sketch of African swimming ferry].