But, above all, we must better study all the spoken languages and dialects. It is strange that we hardly know anything, and sometimes nothing at all, on the languages of many existing tribes, with whom we have intercourse in both Americas. It would be desirable to procure at least a vocabulary of 100 essential words, in each. Such words, including the cardinal numbers, will soon become the key of ethnographical philology. While the additional study of phonology or sounds of languages, their idioms and grammars, their roots, and verbs, the alphabets, glyphs and symbols used to communicate ideas, will combine to furnish the complete knowledge of philology as a separate science. Although I have not always carried so far my researches; I did so for a few, applying chiefly myself to the essential features of languages; and the unexpected results will be surprising.

American anthropography will teach that there were men of all sizes, features and complexions, in this hemisphere before 1492: notwithstanding the false a.s.sertions of many writers, who take one nation for the whole American group. The Uskihs, the Puruays, the Parias, the Chons, &c. were as white as the Spaniards, 50 such tribes were found in South America; while many tribes of Choco, the Manabis, the Yaruras, &c., were as black as negroes. All the other shades of brown, tawny and coppery, were scattered every where. There was not a single red man in America, unless painted such. Some tribes had scanty beards as the Tartars, Chinese, Berbers, &c., others bushy beards. The Tinguis or Patagons were 7 or 8 feet high, and the Guaymas only 4 or 5 feet.

6. _Traditions and Annals._ Many American nations preserve a memory of historical events by unwritten traditions, repeated from fathers to sons; or communicated orally by the priests, chiefs or elderly men. Many are preserved yet to this day, by frequent repet.i.tions, being embodied in songs, hymns, maxims, tales, drawings, or even symbolic figures and signs.

Many of those traditions are precious for history, notwithstanding the fables, allegories, metaphors, personifications, &c., which partly conceal them or render the meaning obscure. We must learn to decipher them as we do old inscriptions and medals.

Although many such are now nearly lost for us, by the extinction of the living books, who kept the remembrance: there are many already collected, and of which we ought to make a good use. But there are as many more, which have never been collected nor printed. I have collected many such in North America in ma.n.u.script. It often happens that the American tribes will not communicate them to their foes or oppressors; but their friends and allies may hope to receive the deposit of them. Every enlightened traveller ought to seek for them wherever he goes. Yet after being acquired, they are sometimes lost again, by neglect. I have known some learned and unlearned men despise them equally as _Indian Stories_, because they despise the ancient American race. There are, however, as yet many historical songs, poems and tales to collect among all the American tribes, which falling in good hands cannot fail to attract notice and be employed usefully. Every one who neglects or destroys them acts as a vandal. Malcolm has said at the outset of his history of Persia, that we ought never to neglect the original notions of a people on its origin, or early history, since therein is found the germ and spring of their subsequent conduct, actions and opinions.

My ill.u.s.trations shall contain many unpublished or forgotten traditions, whereof I shall avail myself in all my historical annals and researches. I consider those of the Uskihs, Dinnis, Ongwis, Linapis, Shawanis, Cados, Natchez, Ozages, Atakapas, Apalachians, &c., as highly important for the annals of North America. The same may be said of the Mexicans, Zapotecas, Mayas, Toltecas, Chols, &c., for Central America. Of the Haytians, Cubans and Caribs for the Antilles. And in South America those of the Muyzcas, c.u.manans, Tamanacs, Popayans, Peruvians, Chilians, Brazilians, Abipons, &c.

7. _Chronology and Astronomy._ These two sciences always go together, and form a double key of history. The American chronology is by no means fixed before 1492, and requires a skillful hand to preserve and compare all the heterogenous dates heretofore collected. I shall attempt to elucidate it gradually; but may often be compelled, as in geology, to relate only successive events without dates, and merely referred to a series of gradual facts. In Austral America, we are told that none had notions of astronomy and dates, except the Chilians; yet their chronology begins only in 1450. I doubt this: I rather believe that their oral traditions have been neglected, as well as those of their neighbours.

In Peru, there are many positive dates, yet I was the first to reduce them to chronological order. In Brazil and Guyana, but few dates are found. The Muyzcas had very early dates, yet few have been preserved; much obscured by personifications of dynasties, and Pietrahita begins their real annals only in 1490, or 45 years before the Spanish invasion. In the Antilles the dates are quite loose, and difficult to reduce even to a serial order.

But in Central and Mexican America, we find many early dates with a regular chronology. Yet some are extravagant or contradictory. I shall endeavour to elucidate them, so as to reduce the whole to order. They must form the base of a regular American chronology, that ascends by dates to the flood and creation. In Yucatan the first regular date only reach to 940 after Christ.

In North America, where the smallest number of dates existed; we have unexpectedly and quite lately, found that many ancient dates could be procured. Cusick has published those of the Ongwi traditions, and I have ascertained those of the Linapis. Both of which reach to the flood and creation, and afford series of available dates as early as 1600 years before our era; thus nearly as ample as those of the TOL-tecas, and as plain in some instances.

Astronomy was cultivated by all the civilized nations of ancient America.

They had cycles of 144, 104, 60, 52, 20, 15 and 13 solar years. Humboldt has well written on that subject; but much remains to be gleaned. The northern tribes reckon by generations as the Greeks, the Polynesians, &c., and by winters instead of years, moons instead of solar months. They had also a cycle of 60 years. In Central America, &c. the months were of 20 days, including 4 weeks of 5 days. But the Peruvians had months of 27 days, or 3 weeks of 9 days as the Etruscans. The Muyzcas small weeks of 3 days, &c. No where in ancient America, was found the sabatical week of days, based on the 7 planets and the 4 quarters of a lunation. This is remarkable, as evincing a remote antiquity, and separation before this week was adopted in Egypt, India, Syria, Celtica, &c.

Until 120 years before Christ the TOL-tecas reckoned only 365 days in the solar year, as the primitive nations of Asia: then they added the hours to the year. This forms their astronomical era. The Muyzcas had a very complicated astronomy, and three kinds of years. The usual was of 20 moons, and the ecclesiastical of 37 moons. The horal division unknown in many parts of America, was of 4 hours in the day for the Muyzcas and Mexicans, elsewhere of 5, 10 and 20. The 24 hours and the Zodiac of 12 signs with 360 degrees were not known. The Mexican Zodiac had 13 signs and 104 degrees.

Arithmetic is intimately connected with astronomy. A complete decimal numeration was known to all the civilized American nations, and even to the northern tribes. The most rude tribes reckoned by 5 or the manual mode; there are traces also of a binary numeration, the most simple of all: while others had complex calculations by 13 and by 20 or scores. We find no trace of any by 7, and but slight indications of a ternary numeration by 3 and 9. All these American modes of reckoning may thus be reduced to the _binary_, by two or pairs; and the quinary or manual by the five fingers, of which the decimal is the double, and by 20 the quadruple.

8. _Languages._ They are becoming one of the most important aids in history. When the annals are ample and clear, the examination of the languages is merely a supplement to historical knowledge; but when they are obscure, mutilated or totally lost; languages then supply more or less to their defects or loss. Their comparative study furnish us new lights to ascertain the origines, parentage, dispersions, colonies, alliances, wars, &c., of the nations thus deprived of written annals or even traditions.

They serve also to rectify the imperfect annals or the fabulous traditions. This study may lead besides to trace the manners, religions, intercourse, arts and sciences of nearly all nations; since the proper languages of each people offers a picture of the civilization, acquired or borrowed knowledge, modes of life, &c. of each.

It is above all in both Americas that this study is indispensable in historical researches: I will therefore apply to languages in all cases, and make constant use of them; and they will unfold new facts quite unknown, although very important, Historical lights shall thereby be thrown on many obscure subjects, whence astonishing and unexpected results may spring, in which I shall depend as much as upon mutilated and neglectful traditions.

By taking into view all the American languages or as many as are already known, we shall easily dispel the errors and absurd systems of philosophers and philologists, who taking only a few as samples of the whole, have either deemed _all the Americans_, as many Jews, or Tartars, or Atlantes, or sprung from the ground, and so on. Now the fact is that these writers have never taken the trouble to compare the numerous American languages and dialects, reduce them to groups, and seek their affinities elsewhere.

Adelung and Vater had once stated without proof, that nearly 1200 languages existed in America. Balbi has reduced them to 423, of which 212 in South America; but they can be much further reduced, most of them being mere dialects. The whole may be comprised in 25 groups of languages, or even less; which were certainly identic in 25 languages 2 or 3000 years ago: and all of which have astonishing affinities with the groups of the eastern hemisphere, so as to indicate a parentage 4 or 5000 years ago.

Vater and Maltebrun have given a few hundred examples of such a.n.a.logies: and the systematic writers have supposed that they had exhausted the comparisons. Yet a single language, the Chilian, has by itself more affinities with the languages of Europe, than all those mentioned by Vater and others, put together! The foreign or transatlantic affinities of American languages, vary from 10 to 70 per cent, according to the nations.

If we suppose that there are 400 languages in America, and as many in the eastern hemisphere, and each to have about 2000 roots or essential words only; while the mean affinities are only 25 per cent: we shall find as many as 200,000 affinities! out of America, in every American language; and in all the 400, as many as 80 millions! instead of the paltry reckoning of 1000 or so. All this is susceptible of mathematical proofs, and shall be unfolded gradually in these pages.

The theory about the common exclusive grammatical structure of all the American languages, is equally erroneous and based upon partial facts.

Instead of all the American languages being polysynthetic by amalgamating words, we find in America many mixt forms, and even the pure monosylabic: while the amalgamation of words prevails more or less in Europe and Africa; chiefly in the Bask, Italian dialects, Greek, Berber and other Atlantic dialects, the Negro languages, those of Caffraria, the Sanscrit and all the derived languages.

It had been a.s.serted that no American language was monosylabic: yet Balbi states that the Guarani and Maya are such; Nasera has lately proved the same of the Othomi. Thus we have at least 3 such American groups of languages. But there are more; nay many American languages have monosylabic roots, even among the most amalgamated groups.

The most obvious grammatical cla.s.sification of American languages, has escaped the acuteness of philologists. I find it in the epithetic structure, or relative position of ideas. Under this view all the languages arrange themselves in three great cla.s.ses or groups. 1. Regular, 2. Resupinate, 3. Mixt.

1. _The Regular_ is the most simple and natural form: where the roots or nouns are prefixed, and the adjuncts or adjectives, expressing epithetes or qualities follow or are added. This group includes in the Eastern Continent 1. All the Semetic languages, Arabic, Hebrew, &c. 2. All the Atlantic and Egyptian languages. 3. All the Celtic and Cantabrian languages. 4. All the Polynesian and Malay languages. 5. The Bhotiya and many languages of Thibet. 6. Most of the Negro languages. 7. Yakut of Siberia, &c.

In America this group includes my groups 1. Innuit or Uski. 2. Ongwi. 3.

Capaha. 4. Chactah. 5. All the languages related thereto in North-west America, the Kaluchi, Mandan, &c. 6. All the Guarani languages of South America, and perhaps many others, Mayna, Mobima, &c.

2. _The Resupinate or Reflexed Group_: where the roots or nouns substantive are reversed, following the adjective or epithetes, which are prefixed. This second mode of uniting ideas prevails 1. In all the languages of China and Tartary. 2. In all the Teutonic languages German, Swede, English. 3. In most of the Thracian, Illyrian, Greek and Slavonic languages. 4. In all the Turkish languages of Turan, Bokhara, Turkey. 5.

The Newari of Imalaya. 6. The Qua or Hottentot of South Africa.

In America, it is the most prevailing form, found in my groups 1. Linni or Linapis. 2. Otali or Cheroki. 3. In all the Mexican and Othomi languages.

4. Chontal. 5. Skereh or Pani and Shoshoni, of North America,-and in South America. 6. Chili. 7. Yarura. 8. Mbaya and probably many more: although hardly indicated by the philologists.

3. _Mixt Form_, which employs or adopts more or less the two former modes; although there is always a prevailing form, that indicates the original mode of uniting ideas. This mixt form appears 1. In the Sanscrit and all derived languages. 2. In the Zend and Persian languages of Iran. 3. In the Pelagic and Italic languages, the Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, Greek.

4. The j.a.panese, &c.

While in America it is found 1. In the Aruac languages. 2. The Muyzca. 3.

The Peruvian languages, &c. of South America, and in North America. 4. The Atalan. 5. Mizteca. 6. Opata, and probably some others.

This comparative cla.s.sification of languages, will greatly help future investigations. It will show the improbability of the two opposite modes of annexing ideas having been entertained, by the same people at any time; while the mixt form evinces amalgamations of ancient nations. We have thus acquired another clue to trace primitive connections, another available mean to pursue the human steps on earth.

9. _Religions and Mythologies._ The human opinions on the past and future form every where ample themes of thoughts and actions. From revelations, inspirations, oracles, wisdom and priestcraft comingled, have arisen all the worships, and rites, dogmas and creeds, swaying the human mind, through hope or fear, love or hatred. The history of religious ideas, is in fact the history of civilization, since they have sprung together in social men. Nearly all the religions of Asia (which from hence have spread throughout the earth along with mankind) were found in America: except the modern creeds. But the traces of Judaism and Budhism were very faint and local. Mahometism was unknown, Braminism hardly known. Christianity or some of its rites are traced to Yucatan only, and may arise from other sources. The most prevailing worships were the primitive Sabeism, Solar worship, Polytheism, Dualism or Manicheism, Shamanism or worship of Spirits, Idolatry, and Fetichism or animal worship. We find throughout America many modifications of these creeds: with several complex mythologies, more or less a.n.a.logous to eastern dogmas.

The investigation of these American religions affords not only an insight into the ancient civilization, but many proofs of ancient communications with Asia or Africa. Throughout North America the Dualism, mythologies and fabulous traditions point to a connexion with Tartary. In Florida, Mexico and Yucatan, begin to appear the Solar worship, and a cruel idolatry foreign to it. This Solar worship appears in a purer form in North America, as far as Peru. While in the Antilles, Guyana, Brazil and Chili, prevailed several worships of heavenly and terrestial spirits; somewhat akin to the primitive idolatry of Africa, Europe, Iran, India, China and Polynesia.

American religions admitted, like many others, of Priests, oracles, temples, shrines, pilgrimages, holy places, sacrifices, expiations, confessions, offerings, hymns, veneration for animals, men and stars.

Idols painted or sculptured in wood, pottery, stone, metals, &c.; b.l.o.o.d.y rites by human sacrifices, scarifications, circ.u.mscision, &c. But none of these practices were general, some were quite local and circ.u.mscribed.

Thus circ.u.mscision was only used by the Mayas of Yucatan, the Calchaquis of Tuc.u.man, &c. Traces of a triple G.o.d or Indian Trimurti have been met from Ohio to Peru; but it was no where the prevailing religion. As the same idea was found among the Celts and Polynesians, it may have come by the east rather than Polynesia in the west.

10. _Civilization and Manners._ This completes the history of all nations.

When their annals are well known, it becomes a very proper appendix to them; when they are not, it is a very needful supplement to the traditions, &c. But we must not make any history consist merely in such an account, as often done by negligent writers. The manners and customs of every people, are so fluctuating, liable to be changed, or improved by civilization, imitation, arts and sciences, &c.; that they cannot afford any test of connections. They are often borrowed, from neighbors or strangers, disused after awhile by whims or wars, invented to suit the climate and productions it may afford. We have positive proofs that the Europeans have since 1492 greatly modified the customs of all the tribes they conquered or visited. This must have happened formerly also, by other visits or communications. Yet, notwithstanding the uncertainty of the origin and duration of the primitive American customs, they must be studied, as one of the sources and objects of history.

We find, in ancient America, nearly all the forms of social civilization and manners of the east. But the Nomadic life with camels, oxen and sheep, was unknown, as well as those animals. The American cattle or lamas, &c.

of South America, hogs of Coriana, dogs and rabbits of Mexico, deers of Florida, buffalos of Taos, were kept by sedentary civilized tribes. The Nomadic wandering tribes of America were chiefly hunters and fishermen: scattered around the agricultural nations, spreading from Canada to Chili.

All the kinds of governments were known in America: Theocracy, despotism, monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy. But the most prevailing were theocracy among the civilized nations, oligarchy among the barbarous nations: with two peculiar modifications, of double kings as among Arabs, civil and military; and chiefs of families or tribes, as among all primitive nations. Queens were known to but few tribes, although the female line was often hereditary. Written laws and codes were known to the Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Mayans, Muyzcas, Panos, Peruvians, &c. Oral laws were elsewhere preserved by priests or magistrates.

Polygamy prevailed among some tribes or castes, but was not universal. The 4 castes of Indians are distinctly found in nearly all the civilized nations, often modified into priests, n.o.bles, va.s.sals and slaves. The arts of music, medicine, smithery, painting, sculpture, architecture, agriculture, pottery, &c., were well known to nearly all. The sciences of geometry, geography, botany, astronomy, &c., were cultivated from Mexico to Peru, even taught in schools and colleges; with the arts, the laws, the rites, and history of the country.

Marsden has well distinguished several degrees of civilization in Asia. If no American nation had reached the Greeks and Romans, or our modern polished and improved civilization; it is not extraordinary. But the Peruvians, Muyzcas, Tol-tecas, Mexicans, Talascas, &c., were nearly equal to the Chinese, Egyptians and Hindus in civilization; not far removed from the European civilization of the 15th century: nay, in some things superior. The second degree of American civilization found in Chili, Florida, c.u.mana, the Antilles, Popayan, the Linapis, Omaguas &c. was equal to that of the Arabs, Malays, Celts, Cantabrians, Pelagians, &c. While the third degree found in all the barbarous nations, Innuit or Esquimaux, Shoshonis, Caribs, Brazilians, &c. was not worse than what we find among the Fins, Laplanders, Tartars, Sames, Negroes and Hottentots.

Individual property in land was almost unknown in America; but feodal and tribal property well understood. Common property of tribes and villages over their territories, was the most usual tenure, modified by wars, conquests, tributes. Individual property existed only for tenements and personal property. Warfares, marriages and funerals were very different in every nation. The weapons of war were clubs, arrows, darts, lances, axes, Macana swords, Sarbacanes or blowing tubes, slings, nooses, thronged b.a.l.l.s, &c. as elsewhere. There was a peculiar diplomacy, with heralds, envoys, messengers. Shields, towers, forts, walls, ditches, were used for defence, besides _Estopils_ a peculiar quilted armor. Flags, banners, and standards were known. The calumets, leaves or green feathers, council fires, and white flags were emblems of peace. Alliances and confederations existed from earliest times, also the adoption of tribes and prisoners.

Slavery was hardly known; but va.s.salage much extended over conquered tribes.

Dresses and ornaments were quite various. Seal skins used by the Innuit.

Deer skins and furs by the tribes of North America. In tropical America many tribes went nearly naked, with a mere ap.r.o.n or pagne of cotton or gra.s.s cloth. But the civilized nations were decently clothed with cotton shirts and feather mantles. The _Poncho_ is a true American dress known from Mexico to Chili, hardly known out of America except Polynesia.(4)

Women wore long pagnes or gowns. They made cloths of lama wool in Peru; of cotton, hemp, nettles, gra.s.s, feathers &c. there and elsewhere; either twisted, plaited or woven. The Peruvians and Chilians had a peculiar loom and plough. Cotton looms were used in Florida, Mexico, and all over South America, even by the Caribs to make hamacs or hanging beds. Among some nations women had the most labor to perform; yet even the men a.s.sumed hunting, making canoes, huts, weapons, &c. More civilized tribes worked together in the fields: The proud and warlike employed va.s.sals or slaves.

Painting the body or face, was usual among many nations, but not general.

It was useful against heat and flies, or was used to inspire love or terror. Ornaments to the head, ears, nose, lips, wrists, legs, &c., were more or less adopted by men and women. The hair was usually worn long; but many tribes cut it in various ways, as a crown or tuft. The beard even when scanty was deemed unbecoming by many tribes, and totally eradicated; but some tribes wore beards. The head was often left uncovered; but hats were worn in the N. W. and Central America, turbans in Paria and Florida, feather crowns in the tropics, _Lautas_ or diadem-bands in Peru and the Andes. Shoes and gloves were unknown; but sandals, leggings, leather clods, and moca.s.sins or slippers of various substances, commonly used; with singular snow shoes of bark in winter by northern tribes.