It appears to be the current opinion of many who have written on the subject, that synagogues were first built during the days of Ezra and Nehemiah. They directed that in every town and city throughout the land, where ten men could be a.s.sembled, synagogues should be erected for divine worship, which consisted of prayers and praises, reading the scripture, and expounding the same, in the language of the country in which the people lived.

The Israelites having, during their long captivity in Babylon, neglected the study of the Hebrew language, which was their vernacular, the result proved that the bible became less understood by them. It was on this account that Ezra read the law to the people in Hebrew, and the meaning of the text was given in Chaldee by the Levites; and thus it was, that the people were enabled to comprehend the true and proper meaning of that portion of the law when read publicly every Sabbath in the synagogue. Hence the origin of preaching in the synagogue, which was considered one of the objects for which the synagogue was inst.i.tuted.

After the Babylonish captivity, the erection of synagogues among the Israelites proved of great utility to the people in general, as the frequent public reading of the law was the only means of preserving the true religion of the Jew, and of diffusing the knowledge of the holy law of G.o.d. It cannot be denied, that it had been partially forgotten during the long and severe captivity; that many of the rites and ceremonies had fallen into disuse, in consequence of the many cruel persecutions which were inflicted upon the people, which unfitted them for the performance of G.o.d's holy law.

The regulations for divine service were as follow. Two days in each week, besides the Sabbath and other festivals, were appointed for this service in the synagogue, viz: Mondays and Thursdays. The hours for the daily prayers were at the time of the morning and evening sacrifices. These hours were devoted to prayer in the temple as well as in the synagogues, as also to private devotion in the respective homes of the people.

In addition to these two seasons of prayer, the ancient Hebrews prayed at the beginning of the first night watch, while the evening sacrifice was still burning on the altar; as we find recorded of king David in the book of psalms, who prayed morning, noon, and evening. It is also mentioned of Daniel, that he prayed three times a day.

The priests and the Levites were devoted to the service of the temple; but in the service of the various synagogues, persons of any tribe were appointed, if found competent, by the elders who were the rulers of the synagogue.

The synagogues were also used in olden times as courts of justice, more especially in ecclesiastical affairs. The great council of the nation, called the Sanhedrin, whose department was in the temple at Jerusalem, was vested with the power of deciding between life and death. Its authority extended over all the synagogues in Judea, as also over all other places, where the people resided near Jerusalem.

The great synagogue consisted of one hundred and twenty elders, among whom were the three later prophets, Hagai, Zacharia, and Malachi. This conclave continued in succession till the days of Simon, the just, the high priest in Jerusalem, who was the last of this school. He was designated the just, because of his devotion and unfeigned piety to his G.o.d, and his upright conduct towards his fellow creatures. This conclave were zealously engaged in restoring the holy religion of Israel to its former excellence, which had undergone many corruptions during the captivity and other persecutions which the people endured subsequent to that period. They published correct copies of the bible, and taught the same to the people, in order that they should understand the religion which they professed to follow.

Then it was that the worship of the synagogue consisted of three parts--the reading of the scripture, prayer, and preaching. By the scripture, is understood the pentateuch, portions from the prophets, and Hagiographa. The pentateuch is divided into fifty-two portions, for the fifty-two weeks in the year; one of these portions is read every Sabbath till the whole pentateuch is finished; in addition to the reading of the law, a chapter from the prophets is read, which dates its origin to the following fact.

In those days, when Antiochus Epiphanes destroyed all the books in the possession of the Jews, he prohibited also the reading of the weekly portions of the law on the Sabbath. The elders then, as a subst.i.tute, selected chapters from the prophets, corresponding, in some measure, with the context of the weekly portions of the law. This practice was continued until Judas Maccabees had conquered Antiochus, when the reading of the law was resumed. To commemorate this event, the practice of reading the said portions of the prophets, on Sabbaths and festivals, has been continued among the Jews, and is now in use in all Jewish orthodox synagogues.

Under the head of synagogues, we must notice that the Jews had schools wherein the children were taught to read the law; as, also, academies, in which the rabbins and doctors made comments on the law, and taught the traditions to their pupils. These academies were furnished with many tutors, of whom one was appointed as president, and under whose name the academy was denominated. Of this character, were the two famous schools of Hillel and Shammai, as also the school of the celebrated rabbi, Gamliel, whom we shall have to introduce to the notice of the reader hereafter, when we speak of the compilers of the Mishna and the Talmud. The subject of prayer will form the contents of the next chapter.

CHAPTER X.

Of the origin and introduction of Prayer among the Jews.

The bible informs us that, even in the earliest ages of the world, there existed in the human breast a spontaneous bursting forth of grateful feeling towards G.o.d, the benefactor of mankind.

The first specimen we meet with is in the days of Seth, the third son of Adam. "Then began men to call upon the name of the Lord." The same expression is used in the history of the patriarch Abraham, who built altars and prayed to G.o.d. His example was followed by Isaac and Jacob, and their immediate descendants. This "calling on the name of the Lord," is what we now understand by the term prayer.

From the several verses in Genesis, which speak of the prayers offered up by the patriarchs, the Talmud infers that the morning prayer was first introduced by Abraham, afternoon prayer by Isaac, and that of the evening by Jacob; and, therefore, it is concluded that prayer was, from the earliest period, held as a regular and stated duty.

After the release of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage, they were initiated into a holy communion by divine revelation on Mount Sinai.

The mode of worship then, consisted of regular daily sacrifices, as described in the bible; additional offerings for festivals, or propitiatory, as those offered for sins and transgressions. These last were always accompanied with suitable prayers and confessions.

In this manner, the sinner had to make confession when he brought an offering in expiation of his sins. On the day of atonement, when the high priest presented the offering to the Lord, he had to make confession on behalf of himself and the congregation.

In Deuteronomy, chapter the twenty-sixth, fifth verse, we find a particular form of thanksgiving and confession to be used by the people, when they offered up the first ripe fruits to the Lord in the temple at Jerusalem.

All other addresses to the Almighty appear to have arisen as occasions required. Of this cla.s.s, we find several instances, such as Moses, Joshua, Hannah, Hezekiah, and others.

Nothing, however, more clearly points out the fact where prayer become an established custom, than the devout and emphatic prayer to the Almighty by king Solomon, at the dedication of the temple at Jerusalem, which he had raised to the honor and glory of the G.o.d of Israel.

The language used by the royal sage on that occasion, so strongly proves the a.s.sertion that prayer became an established custom, that we cannot refrain from introducing to the reader the following extract.

"That thine eyes may be open toward this house, night and day, even toward the place of which thou hast said, my name shall be there; that thou mayest hearken unto the prayer which thy servant shall make toward this place. And hearken thou to the supplication of this servant, and of thy people Israel, when they shall pray toward this place; and hear thou in heaven, thy dwelling place, and when thou hearest, forgive."

The royal sage then proceeds to particularize the nature of prayers most likely to be used; as private injuries, national subjugation, want of rain, famine, or pestilence, even the prayer of a stranger not of the people of Israel, &c. Surely, a specimen such as this, must prove an established custom among them to consider it a duty to pray to G.o.d for favors conferred, and solicit his protection in the hour of trouble and distress.

The temple at Jerusalem was certainly the consecrated place of regular prayer and sacrifices, for all Israelites who were within its reach; yet, as many lived at too great a distance from this sacred spot, private devotion was no doubt regularly practiced among them. We can trace, in history, many accounts of the existence of places purposely devoted to daily prayer and regular worship. The prophets, of whom we read, at Damascus, Shiloh, Bethel, and Jericho, had, no doubt, a regular form of prayer; for, at Jericho, there was an a.s.semblage called the sons of the prophets.

After the destruction of the first temple, the Jewish nation was driven to Babylon, and from there they became scattered about the neighboring heathen countries. The occasions for prayer and supplication must have increased in such a state of slavery and persecution. Hence their addresses to the Almighty must have become more sincere and more constant. The reflection on their former state in society, compared with that in which they were now placed, must have caused in the people a strong feeling of devotion, leading on to the use of regular and earnest prayer. Then it was, that prayer was the sole solace of the people, while under such persecution.

The prophet Daniel suffered himself to be cast into the lions' den, because he persisted in praying three times a day towards Jerusalem, in defiance of the king's edict, which prohibited any person from worshipping any other G.o.d but the idol set up by the king.

In the days of Daniel, it is found that the pure Hebrew used by the Israelites had become much corrupted by the intermixture of the Chaldee and other languages, with which they became conversant by their being so closely united with the strange nations. This caused the holy tongue to be in a great measure forgotten. Nehemiah complains of this, and says: "Their children spake half in the speech of Ashdod, and could not speak in the language of the Jew, but according to the language of the several people."

Ezra, the scribe, who lived in those days, looked on this matter with considerable grief. He was fearful that the people would entirely neglect their holy worship on account of the want of a proper knowledge of the sacred language. And he further saw the consequences would be, that when the people did pray, they would fail to select proper expressions to convey their feelings and sentiments. Ezra, therefore, in conjunction with his conclave, collected, composed, and compiled the prayers in the pure and original Hebrew. They were so arranged as to be suitable for any occasion of private and public devotion, both for the morning and the afternoon, in reference to the regular daily sacrifices offered up in the temple. Also, an additional form of prayer, called "Moosoph" in Hebrew, for those days on which the additional sacrifices had been offered; such as Sabbaths, festivals, and the new moon; also, for the evening sacrifice which burned all night on the altar; likewise, the Nengelah, or concluding prayer of the day of atonement. These are the prayers which have been handed down to the posterity of the Jews throughout the known world.

Ezra and his conclave, who performed this great work, were called "the men of the great a.s.sembly or synagogue." The Talmud, Maimonides, and other eminent Jewish authorities, inform us that this synod was composed of one hundred and twenty persons of great piety and learning, among whom were the prophets, Hagai, Zacharia, Malachi, Ezra, Nehemiah, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azaria, together with many other great men, whom we shall notice hereafter.

These prayers were in daily use among the people during the second temple; for in the Mishna, when speaking of the order observed in the daily sacrifices in the temple, it is stated that the prefect who gave the instructions, regularly said to the officiating priests, "repeat ye one blessing," which they did; then the ten commandments, and the shemang. He again said, "repeat ye with the people these blessings,"

which they did, many of which are in daily use among all orthodox Jews. Besides, as we have before noticed, many Israelites lived at great distances from the temple, and, therefore, it is not reasonable to suppose that G.o.d's chosen people should be altogether without some regular formulae of prayer.

Any person who examines the prayers in daily use among the Israelites, must become sensible of their excellence, and the grateful expressions and high wrought admiration in which they are composed. They are adapted to every situation in life, whether in sorrow or in joy, in grief or in mirth. No one who views the wondrous creation; no one possessed of the slightest spark of grat.i.tude for favors bestowed; nor he who looks forward with hope for relief in the hour of distress, or sickness, can possibly have any language better suited to his feelings, under any circ.u.mstances, and on every occasion.

Nothing, perhaps, has tended so much to keep Israel distinct from every other nation in the world, as their religious customs and observances; but more especially so, their language, the sacred original, in which the Lord of hosts manifested himself to his favorite creature; the language in which they pray, and which, in truth, is the only relic of their former glory and paternal heritage.

It is the continuance of praying in the Hebrew, which forms, as it were, a communion for their dispersed brethren, from whatever country or clime they may migrate, and const.i.tute themselves into a congregation; a language peculiarly their own--venerable for its antiquity, and sacred from its first promulgation, as being the true channel of divine revelation.

The reader will please understand that our observations, as well as the historical accounts, can only have reference to those prayers and supplications which were composed for the Jew by the men of the great synagogue, as already explained. Alas! that any innovation should have been suffered to mar the beauty of those holy compositions!

There are many more of a sacred character, such as known by the name of "Peyutem," or poetical compositions, which are read in the synagogue on the festivals and other special days. These are of much later date, and have been introduced, from time to time, into the Jewish liturgy, by men eminent for their learning, piety, and devotion. They were written under peculiar circ.u.mstances of distress and persecution, during the varied dispersion of the nation, more especially in the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

It was then that the Jews found consolation in the dark storm of persecution, in pouring out their souls in prayer and religious devotion, which they did spontaneously on the different occasions which presented themselves. Their extempore effusions were so characteristic of their pitiful situation, that they made an indelible impression upon the minds, not only of their composers, but also upon those to whom they were recited. To commemorate such events, these compositions were committed to writing. In honor to the authors, the several congregations among whom these pious men lived, introduced them into the festival prayers, and other marked days. These have become embodied in the regular festival and Sabbath prayer book, and have been in constant use among the German and Polish Jews up to the present day. The Portuguese Jews, however, have an entire different formula. Theirs is more ancient than either the German or Polish. It is worth notice, though strange, indeed, that the German Jews, who, in a great measure, omit the recital of these Peyutem, were the very people among whom they were princ.i.p.ally composed. It is, however, not our province to discuss here the expediency of such proceedings: we have only to treat of facts; the reader can judge for himself.

Some few exceptions, however, exist. Many of the Peyutem, above mentioned, claim a much earlier date, and are from the pen of some of the most holy men of the ancient race of Israel. These compositions will be found in the additional service of new year and day of atonement; also, those prayers called propitiatory--as the _Selechous_, recited previously to and during the penitential days.

They have in all ages been admired for their beauty of diction, and sublimity of language, and are highly calculated to inspire the reader with profound awe and veneration, when addressing them to his creator.

It remains now only for the Hebrew language to become a primary object of study among all cla.s.ses, so that they may learn to appreciate the beauty of G.o.d's own language, and thus to be prepared with devotion whenever engaged in prayer, either in private or in public. If such were the case, those who labor in the good cause would be fully repaid, when, by their exertions, they should succeed in awakening the dormant feelings of the negligent to such a duty of prayer as may be acceptable to the creator of mankind. Then will the intelligent mind become sensible of the excellence of the ancient and holy liturgy of the chosen people of G.o.d.

CHAPTER XI.

Of the Ureem and Thumeem.

"And thou shalt put in the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem." Exodus, 28, 30. What the Ureem and Thumeem were is not distinctly explained in the bible.

That they were not the twelve precious stones contained in the breast-plate, as some have erroneously imagined, is quite clear; for we do not find that G.o.d directed Moses to make the Ureem and Thumeem, as he did when he said, "And thou shalt make the breast-plate," &c., &c.

It is plain from the text itself, that they were something in addition to the breast-plate, and put therein, after it was finished, by Moses himself; and therefore G.o.d says, "And thou shalt put into the breast-plate of judgment the Ureem and Thumeem."

From this fact, it is evident that there was something additional placed in the breast-plate by Moses; and for this reason, it is supposed that it was made double, that it might the more conveniently hold them. It now remains to inquire what the Ureem and Thumeem in reality were, and what the particular use of them. As to the former, there are various opinions among the learned. Many celebrated Christian divines have ventured many erroneous definitions on the subject. According to the opinions of the most erudite and pious Hebrew doctors and rabbins, the following appears to be the most reasonable view of the case.

It was, say the rabbins, the Tetragrammaton, or ineffable name of the Deity, which Moses was commanded to place in the breast-plate, and was consecrated to holy purposes. It was vested with divine power to give an oracular reply from G.o.d to any counsel being asked of him by the high priest, during the time in which he wore it. Now, as the answer came immediately from G.o.d, it was therefore properly designated "asking counsel of G.o.d." As to the Ureem and Thumeem, it was especially to ask counsel of G.o.d on such momentous occasions only, in relation to the Jewish nation.