In investigating such feasibility, account is taken of the relative fighting strength. With relation to the enemy battleship, for example (see above), the commander would consider the means available to him and the means opposed (including the enemy battleship and any supporting forces), as influenced by the characteristics of the theater.

This investigation will include, necessarily, a sufficient a.n.a.lysis of the salient features of the operation required to attain each objective. Such features include the nature of the physical objectives (the battleship and any other forces, for instance), the possibilities of relative position, the problems involved in apportioning the forces on either side, and the proper considerations as to freedom of action.

A similar study with respect to the acceptability of the consequences to be expected, as to the costs involved in the operation, will provide a basis for a conclusion as to that factor.

If the attainment of an objective is found to be infeasible, or feasible only at the expense of unacceptable consequences, the proposed objective will naturally be rejected, and some other objective will be considered (page 33).

The objective finally adopted as the best will be that which, all things considered, is best adapted to the requirements of suitability, feasibility, and acceptability, as outlined in the Fundamental Military Principle.

The Appropriate Effect Desired, as the Basis for the Objective. As will be appreciated from the foregoing discussion, the first factor in the selection of a correct objective is the "appropriate effect desired". The evaluation of this factor is not always easy, for reasons which will be explained.

The procedure (as indicated by the Principle of the Appropriate Effect to be Desired--page 33) is the same as for the selection of an objective. This ident.i.ty of procedure is natural, because the appropriate effect desired, used as a basis for selecting the commander's general objective, itself involves the appreciation of an objective. The latter is, in fact, one of the "chain of objectives"

previously mentioned (page 48).

Under conventional conditions this objective is selected by higher authority, and is a.s.signed to the commander in his instructions from the next higher echelon (page 48). The objective so indicated will of course, under sound procedure, have been selected by higher authority on the basis embodied in the Fundamental Military Principle.

When an established chain of command (page 11) is in effective operation, the path to the appropriate effect desired will therefore normally be indicated through an a.s.signed objective, by the immediate superior. This a.s.signment, however, or the failure to receive such an indication, does not relieve the commander from the responsibility for taking correct action on his own initiative. Such necessity may arise should he find, in the exercise of a sound discretion, that his instructions need modification or alteration, or even that it is necessary for him to depart from his instructions under circ.u.mstances of great emergency (page 15-16).

Furthermore, the objective may be adopted by (rather than a.s.signed to) the commander concerned, on his own initiative, in order to meet the demands of a situation (page 50) as to which the higher command has not yet had time or opportunity to act.

Moreover, even when an objective is a.s.signed by higher authority in the usual course, it may be expressed in such terms as to require examination in order to enable the commander to appreciate it (page 43), as to its bearing on his operations. In fact, studious a.n.a.lysis may be necessary for this purpose.

For example, if the objective so indicated does not specify a clearly-defined goal, the commander will need to make a thorough study in order to appreciate the full implications intended. He may find it necessary to a.n.a.lyze his immediate superior's instructions pertaining to the entire force of which his command is a part, and to consider, also, the objectives indicated for other commanders, on his own echelon, who also belong to that force.

On occasion, also, higher authority may acquaint the commander with the general plan adopted by the superior, and may order action--such as movement in a certain direction or to a certain locality--without a.s.signing a more definite objective. Should it happen in emergency that later developments prevent higher authority from making such an a.s.signment, the commander may find himself under the necessity of selecting, for himself, an appropriate objective, to be adopted by him as if it were a.s.signed.

Should the commander find that his instructions do not clearly indicate an objective, or should he find that the one indicated is not applicable under the circ.u.mstances of the case, he will select an appropriate objective for his own guidance as if it were a.s.signed by higher authority. He will make such selection through use of the same procedure already described herein as applicable to the selection of an objective of any sort. In such case he puts himself in his superior's place, in order to arrive at a reasoned conclusion such as the higher commander, if apprised of the circ.u.mstances, would desire to adopt. Circ.u.mstances permitting, the commander will of course communicate with higher authority, and will make constructive representations. (See page 15.)

The appropriate effect desired, as the first factor to be applied in selecting such an objective, will naturally involve the objective indicated in the general plan for the immediate superior's entire force. This general plan is normally announced by the superior for the guidance of the commander and of other commanders on the same echelon.

If, however, this further objective is not known to the commander, he will endeavor to obtain a proper point of reference. To this end, he will use his knowledge of the objective a.s.signed to his immediate superior, or of the further intentions of the higher command with respect to the conduct of the operations, or of the campaign, or of the war.

The provisions for the formulation of plans and orders (Chapters VII and VIII) take account of the fact that the commander may require definite information as to the objectives of higher echelons. In organizations where a state of mutual understanding has been well established, the commander will rarely be without some guidance in the premises (see also page 33), by reason of the chain of objectives indicated in plans and orders of the higher command (page 48).

From the viewpoint of the commander, this relationship among objectives presents to him a series, from the present or immediate objective to others more distant in time. Thus there may be one or more intermediate objectives, leading away from the immediate one to the ultimate objective, so far as the concern of the moment is involved.

This relationship of immediate, intermediate, and ultimate objectives may also exist in situations where the commander, operating on his own initiative and responsibility, determines such a chain of objectives for himself.

Such a situation frequently arises in a campaign or a major operation, and is normal, also, as to minor operations (see page 56, as to physical objectives).

As already observed, the relationship of objective and further objective is the criterion for distinguishing between strategical and tactical considerations, from the viewpoint of the commander concerned (pages 9 and 10).

What has been noted in the foregoing as to the objective (singular) is also applicable to situations where such an objective involves two or more objectives collectively considered.

III. DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE MILITARY OPERATIONS

As noted with respect to the Fundamental Military Principle (page 41), the effort required for the attainment of a military objective involves military operations (page 37), whose salient features are listed in the Principle. These features, including physical objectives, relative positions, apportionment of fighting strength, and freedom of action, will now be discussed to indicate how they are correctly determined by the factors, also cited in the Principle, pertaining to suitability, feasibility, and acceptability. Such determination is accomplished through application of the corollary Principle of Effective Military Operations (page 42).

Physical Objectives

Fundamental Considerations. An operation, however splendidly conceived and faultlessly executed, involves waste of effort if directed with relation to wrong physical objectives.

Since a physical objective const.i.tutes the tangible focus of effort (page 47) toward the attainment of the effect desired, its correct determination is of paramount importance both before and during the prosecution of operations.

As has been demonstrated (page 51), the consideration of possible physical objectives (in s.p.a.ce) is essential to the selection of suitable objectives (in mind). Moreover, action with reference to one or more physical objectives is the necessary basis for determining the feasibility and acceptability of a plan.

Military objectives can be achieved only through the application of power, actually or by threat (page 8), with reference to physical objectives.

The determination of correct physical objectives is followed, if more than one such objective is found, by the selection of the one or more which are best adapted to the requirements of the situation. The procedure for determination and for selection is a matter for painstaking mental effort, based on the considerations now to be presented.

The term "military objective" is frequently used in military literature to distinguish physical objectives which are combatant in character from those which are noncombatant. The considerations which follow are applicable to physical objectives of all categories.

Procedure for Determination and Selection of Correct Physical Objectives. In a particular set of circ.u.mstances, the field wherein correct physical objectives may be found and the best selected, is that of an existent or probable theater of action.

The determination of a physical objective, when correct, initially satisfies the requirement of suitability with respect to the nature of the objective,--this being, in such case, the appropriate effect desired (page 31). Physical objectives not suitable, with relation to the objective to be attained, are manifestly incorrect physical points of orientation with respect to the operations involved in the effort to attain such an objective.

It may be found, however, that the selection of a single physical objective will not fulfill this requirement. A commander may find it necessary to direct his effort simultaneously, or in succession, with relation to more than one physical objective.

When a succession of physical objectives has to be dealt with, the selection will necessarily include such a series. Such a case might occur where a campaign has been found necessary in the form of successive stages as essential features. The visualized termination of each successive stage may be marked by the successful application of effort with respect to one or more physical objectives. Such a series of physical objectives may frequently also occur in operations on a smaller scale; even in very minor actions such a succession of efforts is normal. (See page 54, as to objectives.)

The choice as to the specific nature of physical objectives will extend, for example, from the enemy's organized forces as a whole to the physical body of an individual combatant. Within this range will be included all manner of physical elements of enemy fighting strength, singly and in combination, such as troops, ships, geographical points, lines and areas, fortifications, bases, and supplies.

The physical objective may take the form of a fixed geographical position, the occupation of which, because of its inherent advantages, may be, for example, an essential preliminary to further progress. The position may, for instance, be merely a point in the ocean (page 47), a rendezvous beyond which, although its occupation may be uncontested, it has been deemed unwise to proceed without further information or additional strength.

The physical objective, therefore, does not always take the form of some element of the enemy fighting strength; not infrequently, the occupation of a correct physical objective may be uncontested by the enemy. However, intervening armed forces of the enemy may const.i.tute the physical objective for application of successful effort before a further physical objective may be dealt with. The possibility of enemy opposition may, therefore, place the selection of one or more physical objectives on an indeterminable basis at the time of the original solution of the problem. This may require a commander to defer his choice until the situation has become more fully developed.

For example, his objective may be the occupation of a certain harbor, preliminary to the establishment of a base. The harbor is then a correct physical objective, perhaps the only physical objective which need be dealt with, if there are no other obstacles to prevent or interrupt the operation. Armed forces of the enemy may, however, stand as an obstacle to the undisputed occupation of the harbor and, therefore, to the attainment of the objective. In such case they become, for the time being, the correct physical objective.

While the armed forces of the enemy may frequently present appropriate physical objectives, this is not always the case (see above). It is true that, in war, the armed forces of the enemy, until they can no longer offer effective resistance, prevent the full attainment of the objective of the State. Accordingly, from the broad viewpoint, they may const.i.tute the legitimate and proper physical objective of the opposing armed forces. Armed forces of the enemy which are present in opposition to any projected operations are likely to offer proper physical objectives.

These facts, however, do not restrict a commander, in his choice of a physical objective, to the armed forces of the enemy. Nor do these considerations require him to search for and destroy the enemy forces before directing his effort toward the attainment of an objective under circ.u.mstances where the enemy is seen to be incapable of presenting effective opposition.

The correct physical objective may change several times during the course of an operation. This is particularly to be expected in a naval tactical engagement of considerable scope. While the enemy fleet, as a whole, may properly be considered in such a case to be the physical objective, the component parts of each fleet, the types of vessels and their combinations, may, from time to time, find in their opponents a variety of physical objectives, the particular ident.i.ty of which can scarcely be predicted with a.s.surance. It is here that the importance of the correct selection of physical objectives stands out in bold relief.

Infliction of loss on enemy forces, or support of own forces hard pressed, may always seem tempting immediate objectives in war.

However, there may be occasions when disengagement or refusal to engage an enemy force, even though it be of manifestly inferior strength, may be appropriate to the attainment of the end in view.

Necessity for speed or secrecy, or other demands, may make the required operations unacceptable. (See page 75 as to the offensive and the defensive.)

Land, as the natural habitat of man (page 46), is always the princ.i.p.al store-house of his indispensable resources, as well as the primary scene of his activities. Naval operations, therefore, have always in view the eventual maintenance or creation of a favorable military situation in critical land areas. From this fundamental viewpoint, the eventual physical objective of military operations is always a land objective.

The suitability of a physical objective having been determined, the next consideration is the feasibility (page 31) of taking such action, with relation thereto, as will, if successful, attain the objective in mind. Feasibility is determined by evaluation of the factors of means available and opposed, as influenced by the characteristics of the theater, in order to a.s.sess relative fighting strength (see page 52).

In connection with the effort involved with relation to any physical objective, questions of feasibility may make it desirable or necessary to visualize the detailed operations which arise from considerations of relative position, of apportionment of fighting strength, and of provision for freedom of action.

Of particular interest with respect to such operations, it is noted that the premature disclosure of a selected physical objective is a military error. By appearing, however, to operate against more than one physical objective, a commander may lead the enemy to overstrain his resources in the effort to protect them all. Thus the commander may reduce the resistance to be encountered in dealing with what have already, or may finally, become the selected physical objectives.

Feints in several directions may even divert all of the enemy's effective defense from the vital points (see also page 68).