As flies to wanton boys are we to the G.o.ds; They kill us for their sport;

Edgar:

Think that the clearest G.o.ds, who make them honours Of men's impossibilities, have preserved thee.

Here we have four distinct theories of the nature of the ruling power.

And besides this, in such of the characters as have any belief in G.o.ds who love good and hate evil, the spectacle of triumphant injustice or cruelty provokes questionings like those of Job, or else the thought, often repeated, of divine retribution. To Lear at one moment the storm seems the messenger of heaven:

Let the great G.o.ds, That keep this dreadful pother o'er our heads, Find out their enemies now. Tremble, thou wretch, That hast within thee undivulged crimes....

At another moment those habitual miseries of the poor, of which he has taken too little account, seem to him to accuse the G.o.ds of injustice:

Take physic, pomp; Expose thyself to feel what wretches feel, That thou mayst shake the superflux to them And show the heavens more just;

and Gloster has almost the same thought (IV. i. 67 ff.). Gloster again, thinking of the cruelty of Lear's daughters, breaks out,

but I shall see The winged vengeance overtake such children.

The servants who have witnessed the blinding of Gloster by Cornwall and Regan, cannot believe that cruelty so atrocious will pa.s.s unpunished.

One cries,

I'll never care what wickedness I do, If this man come to good;

and another,

if she live long, And in the end meet the old course of death, Women will all turn monsters.

Albany greets the news of Cornwall's death with the exclamation,

This shows you are above, You justicers, that these our nether crimes So speedily can venge;

and the news of the deaths of the sisters with the words,

This judgment[149] of the heavens, that makes us tremble, Touches us not with pity.

Edgar, speaking to Edmund of their father, declares

The G.o.ds are just, and of our pleasant vices Make instruments to plague us,

and Edmund himself a.s.sents. Almost throughout the latter half of the drama we note in most of the better characters a pre-occupation with the question of the ultimate power, and a pa.s.sionate need to explain by reference to it what otherwise would drive them to despair. And the influence of this pre-occupation and need joins with other influences in affecting the imagination, and in causing it to receive from _King Lear_ an impression which is at least as near of kin to the _Divine Comedy_ as to _Oth.e.l.lo_.

3

For Dante that which is recorded in the _Divine Comedy_ was the justice and love of G.o.d. What did _King Lear_ record for Shakespeare? Something, it would seem, very different. This is certainly the most terrible picture that Shakespeare painted of the world. In no other of his tragedies does humanity appear more pitiably infirm or more hopelessly bad. What is Iago's malignity against an envied stranger compared with the cruelty of the son of Gloster and the daughters of Lear? What are the sufferings of a strong man like Oth.e.l.lo to those of helpless age?

Much too that we have already observed--the repet.i.tion of the main theme in that of the under-plot, the comparisons of man with the most wretched and the most horrible of the beasts, the impression of Nature's hostility to him, the irony of the unexpected catastrophe--these, with much else, seem even to indicate an intention to show things at their worst, and to return the sternest of replies to that question of the ultimate power and those appeals for retribution. Is it an accident, for example, that Lear's first appeal to something beyond the earth,

O heavens, If you do love old men, if your sweet sway Allow[150] obedience, if yourselves are old, Make it your cause:

is immediately answered by the iron voices of his daughters, raising by turns the conditions on which they will give him a humiliating harbourage; or that his second appeal, heart-rending in its piteousness,

You see me here, you G.o.ds, a poor old man, As full of grief as age; wretched in both:

is immediately answered from the heavens by the sounds of the breaking storm?[151] Albany and Edgar may moralise on the divine justice as they will, but how, in face of all that we see, shall we believe that they speak Shakespeare's mind? Is not his mind rather expressed in the bitter contrast between their faith and the events we witness, or in the scornful rebuke of those who take upon them the mystery of things as if they were G.o.d's spies?[152] Is it not Shakespeare's judgment on his kind that we hear in Lear's appeal,

And thou, all-shaking thunder, Smite flat the thick rotundity o' the world!

Crack nature's moulds, all germens spill at once, That make ingrateful man!

and Shakespeare's judgment on the worth of existence that we hear in Lear's agonised cry, 'No, no, no life!'?

Beyond doubt, I think, some such feelings as these possess us, and, if we follow Shakespeare, ought to possess us, from time to time as we read _King Lear_. And some readers will go further and maintain that this is also the ultimate and total impression left by the tragedy. _King Lear_ has been held to be profoundly 'pessimistic' in the full meaning of that word,--the record of a time when contempt and loathing for his kind had overmastered the poet's soul, and in despair he p.r.o.nounced man's life to be simply hateful and hideous. And if we exclude the biographical part of this view,[153] the rest may claim some support even from the greatest of Shakespearean critics since the days of Coleridge, Hazlitt and Lamb. Mr. Swinburne, after observing that _King Lear_ is 'by far the most Aeschylean' of Shakespeare's works, proceeds thus:

'But in one main point it differs radically from the work and the spirit of Aeschylus. Its fatalism is of a darker and harder nature. To Prometheus the fetters of the lord and enemy of mankind were bitter; upon Orestes the hand of heaven was laid too heavily to bear; yet in the not utterly infinite or everlasting distance we see beyond them the promise of the morning on which mystery and justice shall be made one; when righteousness and omnipotence at last shall kiss each other. But on the horizon of Shakespeare's tragic fatalism we see no such twilight of atonement, such pledge of reconciliation as this. Requital, redemption, amends, equity, explanation, pity and mercy, are words without a meaning here.

As flies to wanton boys are we to the G.o.ds; They kill us for their sport.

Here is no need of the Eumenides, children of Night everlasting; for here is very Night herself.

'The words just cited are not casual or episodical; they strike the keynote of the whole poem, lay the keystone of the whole arch of thought. There is no contest of conflicting forces, no judgment so much as by casting of lots: far less is there any light of heavenly harmony or of heavenly wisdom, of Apollo or Athene from above. We have heard much and often from theologians of the light of revelation: and some such thing indeed we find in Aeschylus; but the darkness of revelation is here.'[154]

It is hard to refuse a.s.sent to these eloquent words, for they express in the language of a poet what we feel at times in reading _King Lear_ but cannot express. But do they represent the total and final impression produced by the play? If they do, this impression, so far as the substance of the drama is concerned (and nothing else is in question here), must, it would seem, be one composed almost wholly of painful feelings,--utter depression, or indignant rebellion, or appalled despair. And that would surely be strange. For _King Lear_ is admittedly one of the world's greatest poems, and yet there is surely no other of these poems which produces on the whole this effect, and we regard it as a very serious flaw in any considerable work of art that this should be its ultimate effect.[155] So that Mr. Swinburne's description, if taken as final, and any description of King Lear as 'pessimistic' in the proper sense of that word, would imply a criticism which is not intended, and which would make it difficult to leave the work in the position almost universally a.s.signed to it.

But in fact these descriptions, like most of the remarks made on _King Lear_ in the present lecture, emphasise only certain aspects of the play and certain elements in the total impression; and in that impression the effect of these aspects, though far from being lost, is modified by that of others. I do not mean that the final effect resembles that of the _Divine Comedy_ or the _Oresteia_: how should it, when the first of these can be called by its author a 'Comedy,' and when the second, ending (as doubtless the _Prometheus_ trilogy also ended) with a solution, is not in the Shakespearean sense a tragedy at all?[156] Nor do I mean that _King Lear_ contains a revelation of righteous omnipotence or heavenly harmony, or even a promise of the reconciliation of mystery and justice. But then, as we saw, neither do Shakespeare's other tragedies contain these things. Any theological interpretation of the world on the author's part is excluded from them, and their effect would be disordered or destroyed equally by the ideas of righteous or of unrighteous omnipotence. Nor, in reading them, do we think of 'justice'

or 'equity' in the sense of a strict requital or such an adjustment of merit and prosperity as our moral sense is said to demand; and there never was vainer labour than that of critics who try to make out that the persons in these dramas meet with 'justice' or their 'deserts.'[157]

But, on the other hand, man is not represented in these tragedies as the mere plaything of a blind or capricious power, suffering woes which have no relation to his character and actions; nor is the world represented as given over to darkness. And in these respects _King Lear_, though the most terrible of these works, does not differ in essence from the rest.

Its keynote is surely to be heard neither in the words wrung from Gloster in his anguish, nor in Edgar's words 'the G.o.ds are just.' Its final and total result is one in which pity and terror, carried perhaps to the extreme limits of art, are so blended with a sense of law and beauty that we feel at last, not depression and much less despair, but a consciousness of greatness in pain, and of solemnity in the mystery we cannot fathom.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 123: I leave undiscussed the position of _King Lear_ in relation to the 'comedies' of _Measure for Measure_, _Troilus and Cressida_ and _All's Well_.]

[Footnote 124: See Note R.]

[Footnote 125: On some of the points mentioned in this paragraph see Note S.]

[Footnote 126:

'_Kent._ I thought the king had more affected the Duke of Albany than Cornwall.

_Glos._ It did always seem so to us: but now, in the division of the kingdom, it appears not which of the dukes he values most.'

For (Gloster goes on to say) their shares are exactly equal in value.

And if the shares of the two elder daughters are fixed, obviously that of the third is so too.]

[Footnote 127:

I loved her most, and thought to set my rest On her kind nursery.]