Fig. _b._ _Peduncle_.

NOTE.-The leaf of _Quercus Robur sessiliflora_ has a greater number of divisions than that of _Q. Robur pedunculata_. These lobes are somewhat more acute at the apex. This and its longer petiole, and general brighter colour of the whole leaf, gives the former tree, when in foliage, a lighter aspect than the latter.

HOW TO GROW GOOD ORCHARDS

CHAPTER XLVII.

ON THE APPLE AND PEAR AS ORCHARD FRUITS.

In discussing the subject of fruit in relation to the farm, we shall find that the number of species is exceedingly limited, being, indeed, confined to two: the apple and the pear. This paucity of species, however, is amply compensated for in an extended and constantly extending list of _sorts_, or varieties, which, in both species, amount to several hundreds.

The apple, which we shall first describe, is admitted on all hands to be derived from the wild crab-apple (_Pyrus malus_), which is considered to be a native tree, to which position its general appearance in woods and hedges all over the island would seem to give it no small claim.

The fruit of the crab is exceedingly austere, and hence sour-tempered people are said to be "crabbed." The expressed juice makes a strong vinegar, called "Verjuice"-in the vulgar, "Varjes"-and hence Akerman, in his "Wiltshire Tales," has given a cross-grained woman the name of "Mistress Varjes." Verjuice is a very popular remedy for sprains and bruises, and hence on most farms having trees of crab-apples, the fruit is made into vinegar, and kept separately for medicinal or domestic use.

The wild crab is very various in the size, colour, and flavour of its fruit, varying in the latter point from an austerity that, on biting an apple, would make one wince again, to that of an agreeable acid flavour, almost equal to some of our domestic apples.

Taking into consideration this disposition to run into varieties, even in a wild state, we shall not be surprised that, in cultivation, the sorts of apples should be endless, so much so, indeed, that Don, in his "General System of Gardening and Botany," has copied a list[30] in which are described no less than one thousand four hundred sorts, and in a nurseryman's list now before us, "Descriptive Catalogue of Fruit Trees, by John Scott, of Merriott Nurseries, Crewkerne, Somerset," are described as many as one hundred and sixty-six sorts, which he is prepared to supply to purchasers.

[30] This list was made out by the Horticultural Society in 1832, and may now be considerably augmented.

As an evidence of the facility with which new sorts can be obtained, there is scarcely a country town or place in orchard districts but has given its name to some apple. Thus we have Canadian Pippin, Newtown Pippin, Carlisle and Keswick Codlin, Hawthenden, &c.; and the names of fruit-growers and others attached to apples is almost endless; as thus: Ashmead's Kernel, Nelson's Codlin, Lucombe's Seedling, Lord Nelson, Lord Raglan, &c., &c.

The subject of "sorts," as applied to fruit, is one of great interest, as the facility with which these can be obtained renders it possible to procure fruit possessing very different properties and capabilities, adapted, not only to a great variety of uses, but with powers of adaptation to different soils, and a wide range of climatic differences.

These powers of adaptation have, indeed, resulted in the preservation of many sorts, but it also causes the neglect of some others; for as fashion takes up with new favourites old ones are neglected until they die out, and, if not become entirely lost, their stocks are lessened, so that the chance of a good choice for their continuance becomes more difficult year by year. We believe this to have more to do with the decline of old favourites than any inherent principle of decay with which grafts are said to be endowed.

The many sorts of apples differing so much in flavour and keeping powers, enable this fruit to be employed for a variety of purposes, such as-

_Culinary Apples_, used for tarts, puddings, &c., &c.;

_Dessert Apples_, usually of a sweet sub-acid flavour and crisp texture, eaten raw;

_Cider Apples_, the expressed juice of which forms English Cider (_Cidre_, French).

The same distinctions apply to pears, with the difference that their juice is termed Perry.

Now, with regard to the two first, we need here only mention them incidentally, as their description belongs more properly to the horticulturist, or pomologist, than to the farmer; at the same time it must be confessed that both culinary and dessert apples may be made a source of profit by the farmer, as they would always find ready purchasers; but the difficulty a farmer meets with in their cultivation results from the circ.u.mstance that it is not easy to exert that watchfulness over broad acres necessary to protect sweet apples from the predatory urchins with which every country parish abounds, a propensity, indeed, not sufficiently checked by the elders, whose plea that "it is only a few apples, and that children will be children," affords just that amount of encouragement which too often ends in more serious acts of larceny.

As regards cider fruit, we would here dissent from the common belief that sour apples are the best for cider-making. We believe that the sweeter the apple, and the higher the specific gravity of the juice, the better the cider. Many, then, of our culinary and dessert apples would make most excellent drink; at the same time there are many sorts that will not "cook," whose flesh cannot be got to become soft and pulpy, but rather hard and tough by the processes either of boiling or baking. Many sorts whose flavour is not sufficiently agreeable to be eaten raw, and yet these may yield on expression a sweet juice, resulting in a strong and agreeable cider.

Now, although there can be little doubt but that the quality of cider is much influenced by the sort of fruit from which it is made, we are inclined to the belief that the nature of the soil has, if possible, a still more decided influence upon the result. We therefore now direct attention to some of the best cider districts in England, which may be cla.s.sed as follows:-

Devonshire, Cider of the sweetest and richest kind;

Somersetshire, Cider rich and not so sweet;

Dorsetshire, Cider somewhat poor;

Herefordshire, Cider and Perry, very strong, but somewhat harsh;

Worcestershire, Perry and Cider, rich and not too harsh;

Gloucestershire, Cider and Perry, strong but not sweet.

The prevailing geological formations of these cider-producing counties may be arranged as follows:-

1. Oolite Sands-Dorset, and parts of Somerset.

2. Lias-Gloucester, Somerset, and Dorset.

3. New Red Sandstone-Worcester, Devon and Hereford, in part.

4. Old Red Sandstone-Hereford and Devon.

5. Silurian System-Hereford, in part.

Hence, then, cider and perry are grown on the sub-soils of five geological substrata, if, indeed, No. 1 should not here be cla.s.sed with No. 2, for the extent of orcharding upon the inferior oolite sands of Somerset and Dorset is rather due to its extension from the contiguous lias, and this on account of an occasional depth and tenacity of soil.

Its produce, however, is usually inferior.

In Gloucestershire orchards always stop when the top of the lias is reached, and it is curious to see the sides of the Cotteswolds occupied with well-to-do orchards until the oolite is reached, and then they cease altogether, except in some few instances, which are here referred to by way of warning.

Gloucestershire, for our present purpose, may be said to rest on lia.s.sic valleys and oolitic hills. In the valleys are small farms with small enclosures, much of which is in orchard and meadow, whilst on the hills are large farms with fields of from 30 to 100 acres devoted to arable cultivation. Hence, then, this has brought about two sets of farms: the vale, with its fruits and dairy stock, producing good cider, perry, b.u.t.ter, and cheese; the hills, mutton, wool, roots, barley, &c. Now, it happens as a rule that the hill farmer stands higher in his profession than he of the vale, for on the hills he can say-

"Ay, marry, now my soul hath elbow-room."

The skill and enterprise in breeding the magnificent Cotteswold sheep, for which there is each year such a spirited compet.i.tion, attest to this fact.

No sooner, then, does a vale farmer become possessed of sufficient capital than he moves to the hills, and as in his former residence he had imbibed a love for cider, his first act will be to plant an orchard at his new home; but, alas! the most successful farmer cannot command crops in an uncongenial soil, and so it is not surprising that we should know of instances where not even enough fruit for an annual apple pudding has been produced from a Cotteswold orchard which had been planted thirty years.

Apples only attain to perfection on deep tenacious soils, and in a genial climate; the moment the roots get down to stones, the ends of the branches begin to decay, and they become covered over with lichens as thickly as in wet ill-drained clays; besides this the trees look old and knotty, even in youth, a sure sign that they are not sufficiently nourished. These facts are so well known that in planting in our gardens we prepare the soil, if not sufficiently deep and good, and make the climate more genial by fencing and planting in sheltered situations; but this is not possible on a large scale.

Pears prefer a lighter soil than apples, the new red sandstone deposit, especially, the marls of this rock and the lias clays, when covered up, as in parts of the valley of the Severn, with sand drifts, suit pears admirably.

Like the apple, the pear is rich in sorts. It is said to be derived from the _Pyrus communis_, which is referred to as a native tree; but though it is really wild in the temperate regions of the European continent, and in parts of Asia, there seems reason to conclude that our occasional hedge-row denizen has, after all, been derived from pear cultivation.

Pears for dessert are very numerous, and each year adds to the list.

Scott, of Crewkerne and Yeovil Nurseries, gives a list of two hundred and thirty sorts cultivated by himself, as Standards, Pyramids, and Dwarf-trained for walls and espaliers. This list abounds in French names given by both French and Dutch horticulturists, with whom the pear is a great favourite.

Lindley, in his "Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden," describes but six sorts of perry pears, of which there are doubtless several varieties. They are as follows:-