CHAPTER XV.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF PERMANENT PASTURES.

However good our meadows and pastures may be, it is but natural that we should wish to keep them in good condition, and, if not so good, our object should be to improve them.

We have already adverted to weeding as a requisite in the improvement of meadow; we are equally clear upon the subject of draining. On both of these points, however, we have met with opposition. The farmer who considers that all is hay that he can get together in a rick, may look more to ma.s.s than quality, though even here we are inclined to think that if we take hay and pasture together, the more gra.s.ses and the less of rubbish we can get a field to grow, the greater will be our produce in quant.i.ty and quality.

With regard to draining, we are told that it takes the goodness out of the meadow; but if we have a meadow on clay-we will suppose lias or Oxford clay,-with only a few inches of a stiff soil at the surface, we shall find that those few inches are the only available root ground.

Drain, and then we shall soon see that air will follow the water: this united, air and water will decompose plant-feeding matter never before reached.

Now, where the mistake has been made is, that from this time the herbage gets less and less coa.r.s.e, and perhaps in some seasons would not produce the weight of hay; but what there is both of hay and gra.s.s would be much improved, and would become capable of carrying better stock.

The following reply[3] of Mr. Bailey Denton to some objectors to draining in Middles.e.x is, we think, much to the point on this important subject:-

Mr. Denton stated that he had been recently over the estate of Lord Northwick, near Harrow, in company with the n.o.ble lord and some friends and tenants. On that occasion the question of the reluctance of hay farmers to drain the land was discussed, and the farmers said that as they always had a great deal of custom in London for hay, of whatever quality it was, they did not seek so much for quality as for quant.i.ty, and consequently did not think it worth while to drain the land for feeding purposes, although they admitted that draining made the herbage sweeter and better for cattle. The present system, under which the gra.s.s-land of the Harrow district had been cultivated for many years, alike impoverished the hay farmers and the land; and he was of opinion that if drained, the latter would produce gra.s.s of a much better quality, and equally as much in quant.i.ty. He thought a good plan would be to feed off part of the land and put the other into hay.

[3] Discussion Royal Agricultural Society, March 21, 1863.

If asked what would be our criteria as to the necessity of draining, we should say stagnant water at any time.

Plants, however, afford evidence to be depended upon; as thus take the indications of a few weeds common to wet meadows:-

Sedges } Show a want of } Rushes } thorough drainage. } Bull-pates and other } } _Perhaps_ partial } coa.r.s.e Gra.s.ses } or grip drainage } Full Devil's-bit Scabious } may do. } drainage b.u.t.tercups (R. acris) } _Perhaps_ less } certainly Lousewort } } haymaking and more } required.

Field Orchids } manure is indicated, } Cowslips } and draining _may_ } Moss } be done without. }

Now, as regards very wet meadows, it is found that they are seldom if ever manured; for, just as I was told as regards some of the low lands on the banks of the Yeo, in Somersetshire, that it did not pay to manure them; so one might easily imagine that where the land is full of water, and perhaps of moist _humus_, manure would not tend to the increase of good gra.s.s, though it might to that of thistles and b.u.t.tercups.

Meadows that are sufficiently sound to yield tolerable hay are too much worked to this end, and are, we think, getting poorer. The Cheshire pastures offer a good example of the effects of greed in this matter. A century ago we feel sure its gra.s.s-producing powers were far beyond what they are now. Gra.s.s is gone in hay and bones and cheese, but for generations the farmer has gone on depasturing to make manure; but as it will be seen, on reflection, that cattle can only deposit as manure, matter which they have taken from the field and converted into manurial substance, they cannot add any new material: so then this method of restoration must fail at last. Another restoration employed in this county was that of using their salt as a top-dressing. This, as it killed all the coa.r.s.e gra.s.s, and so converted it into manure, recovered the pasture, by, out of bad and rough gra.s.s, growing good ones; but this too would fail in time. Hay, the framework of growing cattle, and cheese, have gone on converting the phosphates and the bone matted of the soil into their substances, and it is now found that returning this in the shape of bones and superphosphates is rapidly effecting an improvement.

Hence, then, we would recommend less of greed in haymaking. Do not ripen the gra.s.ses too much before cutting. Don't trust to grazing for restoring the phosphates and other ingredients of the hay, but bring them in the shape of manure.

Use heavy rollers in spring to smooth and consolidate the soil; replant the roots thrown out by worms; mat the turf more thoroughly together; and crush larger but useless plants.

There is, then, less difference between the cultivation of pasture and of arable land than would at first be thought.

Drainage, acts of husbandry, amelioration of soil by rubbish of all kinds where too tenacious, manuring them by farmyard dung, or, failing this, such artificial manures as bones, superphosphates, guano, nitrates, soot, &c.,-these are the sheet anchors in the improvement of our pastures; and by these we should realize the hope of _making two blades of good gra.s.s grow where one did before_.

CHAPTER XVI.

ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LAWNS.

The homes of our fair country are so much beautified by our nicely-shaven lawns, which nowhere are so green and smooth as in "Merrye Englande," that a few words upon their management can hardly be out of place in a treatise on gra.s.ses; we would, therefore, direct attention to the following questions connected with the maintenance of lawns in a good condition.

1. Lawns should have gra.s.ses which combine the finest possible leaf-growth with a capability of restoring growth and colour under constant cutting.

2. Lawns should be entirely free from plants other than gra.s.ses, unless we except the Dutch clover.

3. Lawn gra.s.ses should possess the property of intimately weaving one with the other.

4. After cutting, they should grow as near the same height as possible.

1. _Fine Lawn Gra.s.ses._-The annexed engraving (_Festuca ovina_) represents one of our finest-leaved gra.s.ses; it is one, too, that will even bear the constant nibbling of sheep without losing either its vitality or its colour. This, and a larger variety called the _F.

duriuscula_, are two forms of this genus well adapted for lawns.

If to these we add the _Lolium perenne_, _Poa pratensis_, and _Cynosurus cristatus_, we shall have nearly all the useful lawn gra.s.ses.

As regards _Poa pratensis_, we should, however, leave it out where we have borders cut in the turf, as its creeping underground stems are mischievous, from their habit of getting into the borders with the flowers. This, of course, would lead us to discourage any couch-like gra.s.s. If, then, we have plots, and the soil of the lawn be sufficiently moist, we should recommend _Poa trivialis_ to be sought in its stead.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 22_ (_bis_). Sheep's Fescue.]

Something like uniformity of colour is desirable; as, if we see bunches of the silvery-leaved Soft Gra.s.s, or the brown patches of the _Fiorin_, it is so unsightly that we should feel the necessity of introducing a new turf where it occurs.

2. _Lawn Weeds._-Plantains, dandelions, and daisies can only be considered weeds whenever they occur in gra.s.s, but especially in the lawn. They are easily guarded against, if in laying down turf we only choose clean specimens, or in laying down seeds we obtain pure samples, and sow them on well-cleaned ground. But however careful we may be, we shall be sure of a few weeds. These can be kept under by cutting them out with a knife, taking care to drop a pinch of salt on the crowns that we leave behind; and then, if we use a little fine lawn-gra.s.s seed to the vacant places, and well roll after the process, we shall certainly keep them under. This should be done in spring, and not in autumn, as we shall then be more certain of success, upon the principle before explained.

If, despite all we do, a few crowns still send up shoots, our mowing must always be frequent enough to prevent their seeding; and as in the height of summer, seeding, in the case of all three of the plants, will take place in a few days, such neglect as our own lawn once got when we were away for a month's vacation, in not being mowed sufficiently often, may take years to remedy.

3. _The Mixture of Gra.s.ses_ is secured by constant mowing and rolling, by which means anything like a wild method of gra.s.s-growth is avoided.

When, however, a lawn is left for a long time without such careful treatment, some of the gra.s.ses are sure to stool out and grow bunchy. In this case, the quickest way of putting the matter to rights will be to remove the offending tufts, and introduce new turf, taking care to keep the whole in order by the scythe and the roller.

Talking, however, of these implements of lawn-culture reminds one to remark that with some the scythe and roller are almost discarded, at least in summer. Our own lawn is rolled with an iron roller during the winter and early spring; but when mowing begins, we prefer the new lawn-mowing machines. We have now used one of Samuelson's for four years, and it has not cost us a single sixpence for repairs; a strong boy can use it, and it possesses the advantages of cutting close and evenly, collecting not only the cut gra.s.s but scattered leaves as it goes, and, withal, most completely rolling the turf at the same time. We are, too, not awoke by scythe whetting at four o'clock in the morning, to secure the dew upon the gra.s.s, as the dry part of the day is perhaps the best for the use of the mowing-machine.

There is, then, no excuse for weeds or bunchy gra.s.s with a mowing-machine, as the whole operation, as here described, is done in less time than was formerly occupied in the scythe in mowing alone.

4. _Evenness in height_ is a matter of importance for the lawn; for if we have gra.s.ses together, some of which make three inches of growth while the majority are growing but one inch, the whole look uneven and ugly.

[Ill.u.s.tration: _Fig. 31._ The Taller Gra.s.ses.]

The annexed cut (fig. 31) shows the effects of this, the taller gra.s.s being a root of c.o.c.ksfoot, which is not only bunchy, but its leaves are too broad for a good lawn gra.s.s, and it grows twice as fast as the smaller species (_a_); its colour, too, would be so much lighter than that of the surrounding herbage as to be at once visible, and to strike one as a great blemish. Here, again, the offending patch should be removed, and better turf introduced, which operation should be performed in the autumn if possible, so as to have the full benefit the following summer.

These points in the cultivation of lawns are more particularly applicable in the process of laying down lawns with cut turves, which is the usual practice, and especially when an immediate effect is required.

In this case, then, it cannot be too strongly urged that much trouble and expense may be saved by choosing the finest turf for our purpose; and the trouble of picking out an objectionable gra.s.s or weed before laying down will be amply rewarded.

If it be thought desirable to sow gra.s.s seeds to get a lawn, we would propose the following mixture:-

5. _Proposed mixture for lawns, cricket-grounds, bowling-greens, &c._

---------------------+---------------------+----------- Botanical Name.

Trivial Name.

Quant.i.ty

Per Acre.

---------------------+---------------------+-----------

lb. oz.

Lolium perenne

Perennial Rye

25 0 Festuca duriuscula

Hard Fescue

4 0 ovina

Sheep's

2 0 Poa pratensis

Smooth Meadow

1 8 trivialis

Rougher

1 8 Cynosurus cristatus

Dogstail

7 0 Trifolium repens[4]

Dutch Clover

8 0 ---------------------+---------------------+-----------

[4] As some people object to Clover in a lawn, we should add a little more Sheep's Fescue in its stead.

These seeds should be sown upon clean, well-pulverized, and smoothly-rolled ground, and the garden roller should be actively employed from the time the gra.s.s seeds have well come up until they are fairly established, when, if mown the second year with the machine, its rolling will be sufficient.