(_e_) Plan the order of preparing these foods so as to cook them in the least time. (_f_) Plan the preparation so that all foods may be ready to serve in the proper condition--hot or cold--_at one time_.

Preparation of Lesson in Cla.s.s.

(_a_) Having your plans well in mind, begin to work at once. Work independently.

(_b_) Cook a sufficient quant.i.ty of each food to serve one or more persons as the time permits.

(_c_) Soil the least number of dishes possible.

(_d_) Keep the table and utensils neat while working.

(_e_) Have the serving dishes ready,--warmed, if necessary.

(_f_) Taste the food before serving to see if properly seasoned.

(_g_) Just before serving food, clear the table so that it may be ready for serving.

(_h_) Serve all the foods _at once_, as a hostess cooking and serving without a maid.

(_i_) If your work is a failure in any way, determine the cause of the failure and its remedy.

LESSON XV

HOME PROJECTS [Footnote 21: See Lesson IX.]

SUGGESTIONS FOR HOME WORK.--Prepare vegetables for at least one meal daily.

Cook fruit at least once a week.

Suggested Aims:

(1) To cook vegetables in such a way that no nutriment is lost.

(2) To retain as much of the nutriment and fresh flavor of the fruits as possible.

DIVISION FOUR

ENERGY-GIVING OR FUEL FOODS,--RICH IN CARBOHYDRATES

LESSON XVI

SUGAR: DIGESTION OF SUGAR

ENERGY; FUEL.--An automobile is a machine. The use of gasoline in this machine gives it energy or the power to move.

The human body is also a machine. Certain foods are taken into the human machine. The utilization of these foods gives the body energy or the power to move (_i.e._ to do work). The body is capable of both voluntary and involuntary work. Walking and running are examples of the former kind of work, while the beating of the heart and the circulating of the blood are examples of the latter kind.

At the same time that the body works, heat is generated. Hence foods not only give the body the power to do work, but incidentally they heat the body. Foods which enable the body to work are termed energy-giving or fuel foods.

There are a number of energy-giving or fuel foods: _sugar_ is the first one to be considered.

EXPERIMENT 10: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN COLD WATER--Place half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in a test tube, add a little cold water, shake. Is the mixture clear? Set it aside for a few minutes. Does the sugar separate from the water?

EXPERIMENT 11: THE SOLUBILITY OF GRANULATED SUGAR IN HOT WATER.--Dissolve half a teaspoonful of granulated sugar in hot water. Compare with Experiment 10. Which dissolves sugar more readily,--cold or hot water? If you desired to dissolve some sugar quickly, at what temperature would you have the water?

EXPERIMENT 12: THE SOLUBILITY OF POWDERED SUGAR.--Dissolve half a teaspoonful of powdered sugar in the same quant.i.ty of hot water used in Experiment 11. Does it dissolve more readily than granulated sugar?

Explain this difference. If you desired to dissolve some lumpy sugar quickly, how would you prepare it?

THE DIGESTION OF SUGAR.--Since sugar is so readily dissolved, and since dissolving is an important step in the process of digestion (see _Solution and Digestion_), it would seem that the digestion of sugar would be easy. Some sugars, such as glucose, need no digestion in a chemical sense, and are wholesome provided their solution is not too concentrated. The digestion of other sugar, such as granulated sugar, is slightly more complex.

Because the digesting of some sugar is simple, one should not conclude that this food should be used in large quant.i.ties or in preference to other fuel foods. If sugar is eaten in large quant.i.ties there is so much dissolved sugar for the organs of digestion to take care of that the stomach and small intestines become irritated. This is especially true when candy is eaten between meals,--at a time when the stomach is empty.

Then, too, it may ferment in the stomach or intestines and produce digestive disturbances. All sweets should be eaten only in moderation and either during a meal or at its close. When sugar is mixed with other foods, it is diluted, and is not so apt to cause distress.

SUGARS AND SIRUPS.--In various plants and in milk, the chemist finds a number of different kinds of sugar. These may be cla.s.sified into two groups:--(1) single sugars and (2) double sugars. _Dextrose_ or _glucose_ is one of the single sugars, while _sucrose_ or _cane sugar_ is an example of a double sugar.

The solid sugars and sirups found at market and having different trade names consist of one or more of the different kinds of sugars. A discussion of these follows:

(_a_) _Granulated sugar_ is made either from the sugar cane or sugar beet. The juice is pressed or soaked out of these plants, then purified, refined, and crystallized. _Powdered sugar_ is prepared by crushing granulated sugar. _Confectioners' sugar_ is a very finely ground form of cane or beet sugar. Granulated sugar is 100 per cent sugar.

Crushed sugars sometimes contain flour or other materials.

_Brown sugar_ is made from the cane or beet, but is not refined as much as is granulated sugar. It contains some ash and moisture.

(_b_) _Corn sirup_ is made by boiling corn-starch with an acid and then refining the product. This sirup contains no cane sugar. Its sweet flavor and sirupy consistency are due to the presence of 38.5 per cent glucose and 42 per cent dextrin. Glucose is not as sweet as granulated sugar. Hence, in depending upon corn sirup alone, the tendency is to use more sugar than is advisable so as to satisfy our taste for sweets. At least 1 1/2 times as much corn sirup as granulated sugar is needed to produce the sweetness of the solid sugar. A mixture of corn sirup and granulated sugar is often used for sweetening foods.

(_c_) _Mola.s.ses and Sorghum_.--Mola.s.ses is a by-product of cane sugar. In addition to sugar, it contains certain mineral materials such as lime. Since it is especially necessary that foods given children contain lime, the use of mola.s.ses in place of sugar may be recommended for children.

One should remember, however, that much sugar of any kind is not good for children. Mola.s.ses contains some acid. Because of modern methods of sugar refining, however, mola.s.ses is less acid than the sirup of former days. It also differs in flavor.

Sorghum is a sirup prepared from the sorghum plant. It contains ash and has a characteristic flavor. If the flavor of mola.s.ses or sorghum is too strong to be pleasant, a mixture of equal parts of corn sirup and mola.s.ses or sorghum may be found desirable. Mixtures of different sirups sold under various trade names may be purchased.

(_d_) _Honey_ is sugar extracted from flowers. Its limited supply and cost prevent its general use. It is not so rich in mineral matter as is mola.s.ses.

(_e_) _Maple Sirup and Sugar_.--Maple sirup and sugar are prepared from sap extracted from the maple tree. They both have a distinctive flavor in addition to their sweet taste. Maple sugar contains approximately 83 per cent of sugar, while maple sirup contains about 71 per cent.

PEANUT CANDY

2 cupfuls granulated sugar _or_ 1 cupful granulated sugar _and_ 1 cupful corn sirup (dark) 3/4 cupful chopped peanuts 1/4 teaspoonful salt

Mix the peanuts and salt and place in the warming oven to heat. If sugar is used alone, put it in an iron pan. Place the pan over a low flame and stir constantly until the sugar is changed to a _light brown_ sirup.

If a combination of sugar and sirup is used, put them in a pan, stir, and cook until the mixture is very brittle when tried in cold water.