13 Idus. Idus. III. Idus.

14 XVIII. Kal. XIX. Kal. Pridie. XVI. Kal.

15 XVII. XVIII. Idus. XV.

16 XVI. XVII. XVII. Kal. XIV 17 XV. XVI. XVI. XIII.

18 XIV. XV. XV. XII.

19 XIII. XIV. XIV. XI.

20 XII. XIII. XIII. X.

21 XI. XII. XII. IX.

22 X. XI. XI. VIII.

23 IX. X. X. VII.

24 VIII. IX. IX. VI.

25 VII. VIII. VIII. V.

26 VI. VII. VII. IV.

27 V. VI. VI. III.

28 IV. V. V. Prid. Kal.

29 III. IV. IV. Martii.

30 Prid. Kal. III. III.

31 Mens. seq. Prid. Kal. Prid. Kal.

Mens. seq. Mens. seq.

CHAPTER XV.

_Roman Games._

The Roman Games formed a part of religious worship, and were always consecrated to some G.o.d: they were either stated or vowed by generals in war, or celebrated on extraordinary occasions; the most celebrated were those of the circus.

Among them were first, chariot and horse races, of which the Romans were extravagantly fond. The charioteers were distributed into four parties or factions from the different colours of their dresses. The spectators favored one or other of the colours, as humor or caprice inclined them.

It was not the swiftness of their horses, nor the art of the men that inclined them, but merely the dress. In the times of Justinian, no less than thirty thousand men are said to have lost their lives at Constantinople, in a tumult raised by contention among the partizans of the several colours.

The order in which the chariots or horses stood, was determined by lot, and the person who presided at the games gave the signal for starting, by dropping a cloth; then the chain of the _hermuli_ being withdrawn, they sprung forward, and whoever first ran seven times round the course, was declared the victor; he was then crowned, and received a prize in money of considerable value.

Second; contests of agility and strength, of which there were five kinds; running, leaping, boxing, wrestling and throwing the _discus_ or quoit. Boxers covered their hands with a kind of gloves, which had lead or iron sewed into them, to make the strokes fall with greater weight; the combatants were previously trained in a place of exercise, and restricted to a particular diet.

Third; what was called _venatio_, or the fighting of wild beasts with one another, or with men, called _bestiarii_, who were either forced to this by way of punishment, as the primitive christians often were, or fought voluntarily, either from a natural ferocity of disposition, or induced by hire. An incredible number of animals of various kinds, were brought from all quarters, for the entertainment of the people, at an immense expense; and were kept in enclosures called _vivaria_, till the day of exhibition. Pompey, in his second consulship, exhibited at once five hundred lions, and eighteen elephants, who were all despatched in five days.

Fourth; _naumachia_, or the representation of a sea fight; those who fought, were usually composed of captives or condemned malefactors, who fought to death, unless saved by the clemency of the emperors.

In the next cla.s.s of games were the shows of gladiators; they were first exhibited at Rome by two brothers called Bruti, at the funeral of their father, and for some time they were only exhibited on such occasions; but afterwards, also by the magistrates, to entertain the people, chiefly at the _saturnalia_ and feasts of Minerva.

Incredible numbers of men were destroyed in this manner; after the triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, spectacles were exhibited for one hundred twenty-three days, in which eleven thousand animals, of different kinds, were killed, and ten thousand gladiators fought, whence we may judge of other instances. The emperor Claudius, although naturally of a gentle disposition, is said to have been rendered cruel by often attending these spectacles.

Gladiators were at first composed of slaves and captives, or of condemned malefactors, but afterwards also of free born citizens, induced by hire or inclination.

When any gladiator was wounded, he lowered his arms as a sign of his being vanquished, but his fate depended on the pleasure of the people, who, if they wished him to be saved, pressed down their thumbs; if to be slain, they turned them up, and ordered him to receive the sword, which gladiators usually submitted to with amazing fort.i.tude.

Such was the spirit engendered by these scenes of blood, that malefactors and unfortunate christians, during the period of the persecution against them, were compelled to risk their lives in these unequal contests; and in the time of Nero, christians were dressed in skins, and thus distinguished, were hunted by dogs, or forced to contend with ferocious animals, by which they were devoured.

The next in order were the dramatic entertainments, of which there were three kinds. First; comedy, which was a representation of common life, written in a familiar style, and usually with a happy issue: the design of it was, to expose vice and folly to ridicule.

Second; tragedy, or the representation of some one serious and important action; in which ill.u.s.trious persons are introduced as heroes, kings, &c. written in an elevated style, and generally with an unhappy issue.

The great end of tragedy was to excite the pa.s.sions; chiefly pity and horror: to inspire a love of virtue, and an abhorrence of vice.

The Roman tragedy and comedy differed from ours only in the chorus: this was a company of actors who usually remained on the stage singing and conversing on the subject in the intervals of the acts.

Pantomimes, or representations of dumb show, where the actors expressed every thing by their dancing and gestures, without speaking.

Those who were most approved, received crowns, &c. as at other games; at first composed of leaves or flowers, tied round the head with strings, afterwards of thin plates of bra.s.s gilt.

The scenery was concealed by a curtain, which, contrary to the modern custom, was drawn down when the play began, and raised when it was over.

CHAPTER XVI.

_Magistrates._

Rome was at first governed by kings, chosen by the people; their power was not absolute, but limited; their badges were the _trabea_ or white robe adorned with stripes of purple, a golden crown and ivory sceptre; the _curule_ chair and twelve _lictors_ with the _fasces_, that is, carrying each a bundle of rods, with an axe in the middle of them.

The regal government subsisted at Rome for two hundred and forty-three years, under seven kings--Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, and Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, all of whom, except the last, may be said to have laid the foundation of Roman greatness by their good government.

Tarquin being universally detested for his tyranny and cruelty, was expelled the city, with his wife and family, on account of the violence offered by his son s.e.xtus to Lucretia, a n.o.ble lady, the wife of Collatinus.

This revolution was brought about chiefly by means of Lucius Junius Brutus. The haughtiness and cruelty of Tarquin inspired the Romans with the greatest aversion to regal government, which they retained ever after.

In the two hundred and forty-fourth year from the building of the city, they elected two magistrates, of equal authority, and gave them the name of consuls. They had the same badges as the kings, except the crown, and nearly the same power; in time of war they possessed supreme command, and usually drew lots to determine which should remain in Rome--they levied soldiers, nominated the greater part of the officers, and provided what was necessary for their support.

In dangerous conjunctures, they were armed by the senate with absolute power, by the solemn decree that the consuls should take care the Republic receives no harm. In any serious tumult or sedition they called the Roman citizens to arms in these words, "Let those who wish to save the republic follow me"--by which they easily checked it.

Although their authority was very much impaired, first by the tribunes of the people, and afterwards upon the establishment of the empire, yet they were still employed in consulting the senate, administering justice, managing public games and the like, and had the honor to characterize the year by their own names.

To be a candidate for the consulship, it was requisite to be forty-three years of age: to have gone through the inferior offices of _quaestor_, _aedile_, and _praetor_--and to be present in a private station.

The office of praetor was inst.i.tuted partly because the consuls being often wholly taken up with foreign wars, found the want of some person to administer justice in the city; and partly because the n.o.bility, having lost their appropriation of the consulship, were ambitious of obtaining some new honor in its room. He was attended in the city by two _lictors_, who went before him with the _fasces_, and six _lictors_ without the city; he wore also, like the consuls, the _toga pretexta_, or white robe fringed with purple.

The power of the praetor, in the administration of justice, was expressed in three words, _do_, _dico_, _addico_. By the word _do_, he expressed his power in giving the form of a writ for trying and redressing a wrong, and in appointing judges or jury to decide the cause: by _dico_, he meant that he declared right, or gave judgment; and by _addico_, that he adjudged the goods of the debtor to the creditor. The praetor administered justice only in private or trivial cases: but in public and important causes, the people either judged themselves, or appointed persons called _quaesitores_ to preside.

The _censors_ were appointed to take an account of the number of the people, and the value of their fortunes, and superintend the public morals. They were usually chosen from the most respectable persons of consular dignity, at first only from among the Patricians, but afterwards likewise from the Plebeians.

They had the same ensigns as the consuls, except the _lictors_, and were chosen every five years, but continued in office only a year and a half.

When any of the senators or equites committed a dishonorable action, the censors could erase the name of the former from the list, and deprive the knight of his horse and ring; any other citizen, they degraded or deprived of all the privileges of a Roman citizen, except liberty.

As the sentence of censors (_Animadversio Censoria_,) only affected a person's character, it was therefore properly called _Ignominia_. Yet even this was not unchangeable; the people or next censors might reverse it.